Europe And Central Asia 2024
Eastern Europe and Central Asia
Russia’s continuing aggression against Ukraine dominated an embattled rights landscape, with the region at the forefront of the global downswing against human rights. The war and increasingly authoritarian practices saw a growing number of countries move in tandem as they rejected their human rights obligations and undermined national and international institutions. Champions of human rights were left under siege.
Russia’s relentless violations of international humanitarian law and crimes under international law, including direct attacks on civilian infrastructure, saw an incessant loss of life and a dramatic drop in basic living conditions in Ukraine, along with growing suffering among children and other at-risk groups.
Impunity persisted for these crimes, as well as for violations in the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan, and many governments in Eastern Europe and Central Asia led audacious assaults on human rights with little prospect of accountability. Civil society was under direct attack and shrank in many countries, operating in a climate of fear and secrecy. Rights defenders were jailed or forced into exile. Peaceful protesters braved growing repression despite unprecedented violence. Notwithstanding the courageous efforts of many, the impact of the human rights community visibly declined.
The abuse of extremist and terrorist legislation, and official rhetoric of “traditional values”, stifled gender and sexual and reproductive rights, in particular. Monitoring activities, including by international organizations, were increasingly constrained. Transnational persecution of exiled activists increased, exposing further the weakness of national and international mechanisms in protecting human rights.
Freedom of religion and belief saw setbacks. Justice systems were blatantly weaponized to suppress dissent, and torture and other ill-treatment remained endemic. Gender-based violence increased. The rights of refugees and migrants continued to be eroded.
Fossil fuel production and consumption grew, contributing to air pollution, which blighted human health.
Violations of international humanitarian law
Russia continued to systematically attack civilian infrastructure and commit war crimes in Ukraine. Civilian casualties were higher than in 2023. As Russia continued to target population centres with missiles and drones, basic living conditions plummeted for Ukrainian civilians, with children, older people and other at-risk groups paying a particularly high price. Russia destroyed or occupied up to 70% of Ukraine’s thermal energy generation capacity, causing regular rolling blackouts. Scores of Ukrainian prisoners of war were illegally tried in Russia and in areas of Ukraine it occupied, for participating in hostilities.
Russia reported hundreds of civilians dying from Ukrainian strikes on its own territory, but the numbers and circumstances could not be verified independently.
Impunity continued for past violations in the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region. The European Court of Human Rights ruled Russia to be in violation of the right to life and other human rights while establishing and policing the boundaries of the breakaway territories of South Ossetia and Abkhazia in Georgia.
All allegations of war crimes and crimes against humanity should be subject to impartial and independent investigations, including through the principle of universal jurisdiction.
Freedom of expression
Dissenting voices were increasingly suppressed under charges of treason and threatening national security, via designation as “foreign agents” and by the use of counter-extremist, counter-terrorist and homophobic legislation, propped up by rhetoric around “traditional values”. Not one was spared, from human rights defenders to artists, journalists, playwrights and lawyers.
Belarus’s “List of persons involved in extremist activities” exceeded 4,700 names, and the number of online, printed and broadcast materials banned as “extremist content” almost doubled in 2024. Harassment and violence escalated against dissenting voices in Georgia, with many activists and protesters suffering vicious attacks by unidentified assailants, in some cases seemingly encouraged or instigated by authorities.
Dozens of independent journalists, activists, bloggers and social media commentators in Kyrgyzstan faced criminal prosecution ostensibly in retribution for criticism. Moldova extended the scope of its anti-treason legislation to peacetime. Tajikistan adopted a law prohibiting clothing that was “alien to national culture”. Uzbekistan’s latest draft of its Information Code prohibited dissemination of information promoting “separatism” and “religious extremism” or displaying disrespect towards the state.
Freedom of association
The operating environment for civil society organizations was stymied, stigmatized and imperilled. Building on the long-standing Russian model, Kyrgyzstan adopted “foreign agent” style legislation. It obliged NGOs receiving foreign funding and engaging in vaguely defined “political activity” to register as “foreign representatives”, forcing many organizations to reduce activities or stop operating as NGOs. Similarly, Georgia enacted the Transparency of Foreign Influence law compelling organizations with over 20% foreign funding to declare themselves agents of foreign influence and comply with onerous and intrusive requirements.
In Azerbaijan, independent NGOs and the media continued to face arbitrary restrictions, including denial of registration and burdensome reporting requirements. Tajikistan continued to shut down NGOs, further to 700 closed in recent years. In Russia, 55 more organizations, including those of Indigenous Peoples, were arbitrarily labelled “extremist”, and the list of individuals and organizations labelled as “foreign agents” grew by 169.
Freedom of peaceful assembly
The already negligible space for peaceful assembly shrunk dramatically further, via unduly restrictive legislation and the use of unlawful force against protesters. This, alongside the crackdown on freedom of association, discouraged participation in human rights activities, including by those who could form the next generation of leadership.
In Georgia, police did not stop at beating, injuring and detaining hundreds of protesters, but also searched and arrested activists in their homes and offices.
In Russia, following the sudden, suspicious death of prominent opposition leader Aleksei Navalny in prison, hundreds were arrested and dozens received severe administrative penalties including fines and detention, for publicly mourning him. In Armenia, police used unlawful force against demonstrators on several occasions during large-scale protests in April and May calling on Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan to resign. In Kazakhstan, “offences” under assemblies-related legislation allowed authorities to jail protesters long after the event.
Governments must repeal laws and end practices that hinder the rights to freedom of expression, association and peaceful assembly, and stop using pretexts to crush dissent and stifle discussion of their human rights records.
Freedom of religion and belief
Freedom of religion and belief saw setbacks across Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Ukraine legislated to ban “religious organizations affiliated with centres of influence” in Russia. At the same time Orthodox priests in Russia who expressed anti-war sentiment were defrocked or otherwise reprimanded, and imprisonment of Jehovah’s Witnesses continued. Religious figures in Belarus not aligned with government policy faced harassment and arrests. In Tajikistan, the Pamiri minority continued to suffer a full-scale assault on the right to practise their faith and the preservation of their culture.
Governments must take effective measures to implement legal and policy reforms to fully protect, promote and guarantee freedom of religion or belief without discrimination.
Torture and other ill-treatment
Torture and other ill-treatment remained endemic, with its perpetrators overwhelmingly enjoying impunity.
Independent UN experts condemned Russia’s “coordinated state policy of torturing Ukrainian civilians and prisoners of war”; survivors reported severe beatings, electric shocks, sexual violence, sleep deprivation and mock executions. Exceptionally, the Council of Europe publicly denounced Azerbaijan’s refusal to address long-standing concerns about widespread torture and other ill-treatment by police. In Belarus, five of those jailed under politically motivated charges died in 2024, while others endured incommunicado detention so prolonged that it amounted to enforced disappearance. Most of the 400 people detained in Georgia during protests in November and December reported mistreatment; scores were hospitalized with serious injuries and many were denied medical care. In Tajikistan, the unfairly imprisoned Pamiri human rights lawyer Manuchehr Kholiknazarov was among those whose health seriously deteriorated and who was denied adequate medical treatment, while the authorities ignored international calls for his release. In Kazakhstan, accountability remained elusive for widespread allegations of torture by security forces during protests in January 2022.
Governments must act urgently to end torture and other ill-treatment, bringing all those suspected of criminal responsibility to justice in fair trials.
Unfair trials
In a rare positive development, 22 defendants in the so-called Kempir Abad case in Kyrgyzstan were acquitted of politically motived charges. In a growing number of countries, however, judicial systems were weaponized to persecute dissent. The number of cases of those convicted in their absence grew.
Belarus targeted political opponents, human rights defenders and lawyers with lengthy prison sentences: 20 exiled political analysts and journalists affiliated with opposition leader Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya received 10 to 11-and-a half years’ imprisonment for crimes against the state and “extremism”. In Russia convictions for treason and espionage rose significantly. In Georgia the authorities blatantly instrumentalized the justice system to crackdown on anti-government protest, and courts routinely ignored evidence of torture. In Tajikistan members of arbitrarily banned opposition groups faced imprisonment, while lawyers suffered severe retaliation for their work.
Authorities must guarantee rights to a fair trial and refrain from abusing the justice system to persecute dissent.
Gender-based violence
Protections for survivors of domestic violence were strengthened in Armenia and Kazakhstan. Elsewhere, however, gender-based violence was on the rise. Ukrainian authorities reported an 80% increase in domestic violence cases compared to 2023. In Kyrgyzstan the number rose 37% over the previous year. In Turkmenistan, amendments required courts to prioritize reconciliation of spouses in cases of divorce, even if domestic violence was involved.
Governments must urgently combat all forms of gender-based violence and address their root causes.
LGBTI people’s rights
LGBTI people’s rights were in decline, in tune with a growing emphasis on “traditional values”.
Georgia adopted legislation on “family values and the protection of minors” containing numerous homophobic and transphobic measures, seemingly adopting much of the blueprint Russian “gay propaganda” legislation. Belarus updated its definition of pornography to include “non-traditional sexual relations and/or sexual behaviour”. A petition for legislation to criminalize “LGBTI propaganda” in Kazakhstan, however, caused such an outcry that hearings on the proposed law were postponed.
Consensual sexual relations between men remained a crime in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
Governments should repeal laws, policies and practices that discriminate against LGBTI people, including by decriminalizing consensual same-sex sexual relations.
Economic and social rights
Children increasingly were deprived of adequate human development conditions. UNICEF reported that 78% of Tajikistani children suffered food poverty, including 34% in severe poverty. Half of the Kyrgyzstani population could not meet basic nutritional requirements, with children disproportionately affected.
Children’s right to quality education was violated in Russia and Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine, with the school curriculum including indoctrination lessons glorifying Russia’s war against Ukraine. Russia also legislated to deny children of migrants enrolment in school unless they passed a Russian-language test and were in Russia legally.
Governments must ensure the rights of everyone to an adequate standard of living, and access to quality education.
Refugees’ and migrants’ rights
The rights of refugees and migrants continued to be eroded. Over 100,000 ethnic Armenians displaced from Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia remained without the prospect of a safe and dignified return. In Kazakhstan, activists from Uzbekistan’s autonomous Karakalpakstan Republic faced the threat of forcible return and the risk of torture and long prison terms. Belarus’s authorities continued to force refugees and migrants across its borders with the EU. Russian authorities engaged in anti-migrant rhetoric and Russian regions passed laws banning migrants from working in certain occupations.
Governments must ensure all those fleeing persecution and human rights violations have access to safety and international protection, and that no one is returned to a real risk of serious human rights abuses.
Right to a healthy environment
Azerbaijan hosted COP29 and failed to advance regional and global climate justice. Its authorities excluded Azerbaijani human rights defenders and activists from the summit, persecuting them before and after the event, and creating a climate of self-censorship and intense surveillance. Output of oil and gas continued to grow, while most countries failed to demonstrate a commitment to either addressing climate change or reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
Air pollution continued to blight human health and was worsened by continued burning of fossil fuels. A World Bank study found that air pollution in the Uzbekistan capital, Tashkent, accounted for around 3,000 premature deaths annually.
Advocates protesting harm caused by natural resource extraction in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia were silenced by authorities.
High-emitting countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia must take the lead in climate mitigation, including by stopping the expansion of fossil fuel production and subsidies. Governments must take immediate measures to protect individuals and communities against the risks and impacts of climate change and extreme weather conditions.
Western, Central and South-Eastern Europe
Discrimination, profiling, stigmatization and harassment based on identity including race, religion, gender and sexuality were themes that permeated every aspect of human rights protection and guarantees. Reports of hate crimes spiked.
Overly broad and vague counterterrorism laws were used to suppress freedom of expression, association and assembly. Unnecessary or excessive force was used by police against peaceful protesters, with some deprived of liberty for peaceful acts of civil disobedience. Surveillance technologies were used extensively to chilling effect.
An arsenal of hostile, repressive laws was also deployed to deter and punish solidarity with Palestinians or criticism of Israel’s genocide against the Palestinians in Gaza. The commitment of governments across Europe to international law was tested and came up short, with some officials taking measures to shield the state of Israel from accountability. Despite the International Court of Justice and UN experts demanding that countries stop all arms transfers to Israel, some continued to export weapons and parts.
Control of borders took precedence over the rights of refugees and migrants. Torture and other ill-treatment, particularly of migrants and people with disabilities, remained a concern. Challenges persisted in accessing gender-affirmative care. Gender-based violence remained widespread. Access to housing, social security and healthcare was eroded. Disasters exacerbated by climate change wreaked havoc, particularly in southern European states.
Discrimination
Discrimination remained a persistent concern. Women, Black, Arab, Roma and other racialized people and groups, and people on low incomes, faced direct discrimination, affecting their access to social security, political representation, employment and education. Anti-immigrant and Islamophobic hate crimes surged after stabbings in Germany and the UK. France, among other countries, saw a rise in antisemitic, Islamophobic and racist crimes. Portugal dismissed most hate crime investigations.
Norway and Switzerland used discriminatory racial profiling. In Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden automated welfare systems led to discriminatory practices against women, racialized people, and low-income individuals. France imposed discriminatory bans on sports hijabs, including during the 2024 Paris Olympics and Paralympic games.
Same-sex marriage was legalized in the Czech Republic and Greece, and bans on conversion practices were pending in the UK. LGBTI people, however, continued to face significant challenges. Legal gender recognition remained difficult in Bulgaria and Serbia, and stalled in North Macedonia. Violence and discrimination persisted in Poland and Slovakia, with Poland lacking specific hate crime legislation. Türkiye continued to unlawfully ban LGBTI pride marches.
Despite local action plans for Roma integration in some countries, Roma faced discrimination, segregation and social exclusion. Italy violated the European Social Charter regarding the right to housing for Roma. The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights highlighted structural racism in the treatment of Roma in Ireland and Serbia. Slovakia’s segregation of Roma children led to a European Commission complaint, and segregation also persisted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria and North Macedonia. Roma in Croatia and Roma refugees from Ukraine in Romania struggled to access essential services.
Governments should meaningfully address systemic discrimination including against Jewish, Muslim, Black, Roma, LGBTI people and migrants.
Freedom of expression and peaceful assembly
Various states adopted measures curtailing freedom of expression connected to solidarity with Palestinians or voices critical of Israel’s genocide against Palestinians in Gaza. Germany criminalized the slogan “from the river to the sea,” leading to convictions. The UK government curtailed freedom of expression related to Palestine, while France investigated numerous individuals for “apology for terrorism. Spain investigated Palestinian solidarity activists for “glorification of terrorism”.
While Spain approved an Action Plan on Democracy to reform legislation limiting freedom of expression, strategic lawsuits against public participation (SLAPPs) were deployed in Bulgaria and Serbia, a new authority in Hungary targeted civil society, and criminal prosecutions continued against those who peacefully opposed the government in Türkiye.
The right to peaceful assembly came under severe attack as states increasingly stigmatized and criminalized peaceful protesters, imposing unjustified and punitive restrictions and resorting to ever more repressive means to stifle dissent. People protesting against Israel’s genocide against the Palestinian people were particularly targeted, as were those demonstrating about climate change.
In positive moves, regulations in the UK enhancing police powers to restrict protests were ruled unlawful and a court in Italy acquitted eight activists after recognizing their motive to take climate action. Efforts continued, however, to ban climate-related and pro-Palestinian demonstrations. Excessive restrictions were placed on such protests in France, and in Finland, Germany and Italy there were reports of unnecessary or excessive force against people participating in such demonstrations. Türkiye imposed blanket bans on protests. In the Netherlands, drones and facial recognition technology were used against peaceful protesters. Serbia, Greece and Türkiye saw excessive force by police and/or arbitrary arrests during demonstrations.
The space for all to exercise the rights to freedom of expression and peaceful assembly must be protected from state overreach under various pretexts.
Irresponsible arms transfers
Several European states were complicit in irresponsible arms transfers, with the Czech Republic, France and Germany continuing arms exports to Israel, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE. However, civil society challenged arms transfers in Denmark and Montenegro; the Netherlands halted the export of F-35 fighter parts to Israel due to legal concerns; and Spain and Belgium complied with calls by UN experts and the International Court of Justice to suspend arms exports to Israel.
Governments should halt weapons transfers to countries where there is a substantial risk of them being used to commit or facilitate serious human rights abuses.
Right to truth, justice and reparation
Europe continued to grapple with its past colonial history and ensuring justice and reparations for crimes of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. A number of countries signing the 2023 Ljubljana – The Hague Convention, which seeks to narrow the accountability gap for such crimes. A court in Belgium recognized the state’s responsibility for crimes against humanity during colonial rule in Congo, ordering reparations.
However, politicians in Bosnia and Herzegovina continued to publicly deny genocide and glorify war criminals. Serbia made no credible efforts towards accountability for all crimes under international law, focusing instead on weakening a UN resolution on the Srebrenica genocide. In Croatia, most victims of wartime sexual violence remained unregistered for special status benefits. The UK faced legal challenges over the Northern Ireland Legacy Act, with courts finding it incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights.
Officials in some European countries openly stated or suggested that they would not implement the ICC arrest warrants issued against Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Yoav Gallant, former Israeli defence minister.
All allegations of war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide should be subject to impartial and independent investigations, including through the principle of universal jurisdiction.
Refugees’ and migrants’ rights
European countries and the EU failed to introduce policies and practices to prioritize protecting the lives of refugees and migrants over the control of borders, take credible steps to deliver accountability for violations, reduce dependence on third countries in the area of migration management or expand safe and legal routes. Italy attempted to detain asylum seekers rescued at sea in Albania, to have their claim examined outside of the country. The EU’s cooperation with Egypt and Tunisia persisted despite evidence of human rights violations in these countries. Reports continued of violence at borders and unlawful returns from Greece to Türkiye, Cyprus to Lebanon and from Türkiye to Syria, Afghanistan and Eritrea.
NGOs and human rights defenders remained the target of criminalization measures. In Greece, defenders faced ongoing prosecution for assisting refugees and migrants. Three UN experts raised concern about Italy’s restrictions on the activities of human rights defenders rescuing lives at sea.
Refugees and migrants experienced a regression in their rights within their host country. Ukrainian refugees in Hungary lost state support for housing, while Belgium and Ireland left thousands of asylum seekers without accommodation.
Governments must ensure all those fleeing persecution and human rights violations have access to safety and international protection, and that no one is returned to a real risk of serious human rights abuses.
Torture and other ill-treatment
Torture and other ill-treatment of migrants and people with disabilities remained a concern. Positive developments included Belgium establishing a federal preventive mechanism and Hungary overturning a ban on physical contact between prisoners and visitors. Romania adopted a five-year action plan to tackle ill-treatment in institutions. However, overcrowding and inadequate healthcare persisted, for example in Albanian and Italian prisons, and allegations of torture were reported in Bulgaria and North Macedonia.
Governments must act urgently to end torture and other ill-treatment, bringing perpetrators to justice.
Gender-based violence
Several countries adopted legislative changes to address impunity for sexual violence. The Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Poland introduced a consent-based definition of rape, and Croatia made femicide a separate criminal offence.
Gender-based violence, however, remained widespread. Romania saw an increase in reported incidents of domestic violence compared with previous years. Killings of women mainly by partners and ex-partners continued at an alarmingly high level, including in Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, Portugal, Spain and Türkiye. Migrant women, sex workers and trans women faced systematic barriers when trying to file complaints of sexual violence. In France, such obstacles included denial of the right to register a complaint and threats of expulsion.
Governments should end impunity for all gender-based violence.
Sexual and reproductive rights
Some countries took positive steps to remove barriers to accessing abortion. France became the first country in the world to explicitly include abortion as a guaranteed freedom in its constitution, and several countries backed measures to protect pregnant people from harassment outside abortion clinics.
However, abortion remained largely criminalized and barriers in accessing abortion persisted in many countries. Andorra continued to enforce a full abortion ban, in Poland abortion remained severely restricted and in Malta, risk to the life of the pregnant person remained the only legal exception allowing access to abortion. In England and Wales, there was an increase in investigations and prosecutions of women accused of having an abortion outside the legal framework.
Refusals to provide abortion care on grounds of conscience or religion remained a concern, including in Croatia, Italy and Portugal. Abortion was particularly inaccessible in rural and economically deprived areas in countries such as Croatia and Slovenia.
Governments must guarantee access to comprehensive sexual and reproductive healthcare, including safe abortion.
Economic and social rights
There were obstacles for people accessing social security. Women and people with disabilities in Austria faced stigmatization, bureaucratic hurdles and restrictive legal provisions. In Finland, significant cuts to social security jeopardized an adequate standard of living for those already on low incomes. In the UK the standard social security allowance was less than the cost of common essentials.
The right to health was eroded in Italy and Spain owing to insufficient public investment in health infrastructure. In Greece, health workers and experts continued to report ongoing and significant gaps in the national health system.
Across the UK, 4.3 million children were living in poverty, with a disproportionate impact on children from Black and minority ethnic backgrounds, while in Italy 10% of the population was living in absolute poverty.
Access to housing remained a significant challenge. In Poland, a shortage of affordable housing led to substandard living conditions. Andorra failed to prevent winter evictions and Ireland saw record levels of homelessness.
Governments must take immediate action to guarantee all people’s economic and social rights, free from discrimination, including by assigning adequate resources and ensuring universal and comprehensive social protection.
Right to a healthy environment
Several countries faced disasters including floods, wildfires and extreme heat exacerbated by human-induced climate change. Spain saw torrential rains in October, causing flash floods and 224 deaths. Record temperatures attributed to climate change caused deaths in Greece and Portugal.
Despite limited positive outcomes, from Slovenia imposing stricter emissions limits, Croatia planning for 75% renewable electricity by 2030, the growth of renewable energy in Hungary and the cancellation of a mining permit in Montenegro over environmental concerns, many countries lagged behind in climate policies. A landmark ruling by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) found Switzerland’s inadequate climate policies had violated the right to effective protection from the serious adverse effects of climate change. Germany’s climate plans were deemed legally insufficient and Türkiye’s climate policies were rated critically insufficient. The Netherlands weakened its climate policies, Norway continued new exploration for fossil fuels, Greece expanded gas infrastructure and Belgium spent EUR 15.5 billion on fossil fuel subsidies. Collectively, European countries blocked agreement at COP29 on an adequately scaled-up climate finance target.
Governments should speedily phase out the use and production of fossil fuel through a just transition and end all fossil fuel financing. They should also urgently scale up climate finance and additional dedicated funding for loss and damage to lower-income countries.
Right to privacy
While Montenegro suspended the use of facial recognition software, and a court in France ruled that AI-powered audio surveillance systems were manifestly illegal, the unlawful use of spyware and facial recognition technology remained a concern. Invasive digital forensic techniques were used against activists and independent journalists by the authorities in Serbia. In Germany, police used facial recognition technology without sufficient legal basis. The ECtHR ruled that Poland had breached the right to privacy through “secret surveillance” related to the use of Pegasus spyware, and in Hungary a court found that the country’s data protection watchdog had failed to effectively investigate a case of four individuals targeted by Pegasus.
Governments must stop the slide into creating surveillance societies.