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Amnesty International Campaigning Manual

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Amnesty international

Campaigning MANUAL

Amnesty International is a worldwide campaigning movement that works to promote all the human rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international standards. In particular, Amnesty International campaigns to free all prisoners of conscience; ensure fair and prompt trials for political prisoners; abolish the death penalty, torture and other cruel treatment of prisoners; end political killings and "disappearances"; and oppose human rights abuses by opposition groups.

Amnesty International has around a million members and supporters in 162 countries and territories. Activities range from public demonstrations to letter-writing, from human rights education to fundraising concerts, from individual appeals on a particular case to global campaigns on a particular issue.

There are around 8,000 Amnesty International groups, including local groups, youth or student groups, and professional groups in 80 countries. Many of these work on long-term assignments concerning more than 7,000 prisoners of conscience and other victims of human rights violations. Around 80,000 people are linked to Amnesty International's Urgent Action network, which mobilizes appeals on behalf of individuals whose lives or well being are feared to be in immediate danger.

Amnesty International is impartial and independent of any government, political persuasion or religious creed. Amnesty International is financed largely by subscriptions and donations from its worldwide membership.

amnesty international

CAMPAIGNING MANUAL

Amnesty International Publications

This second edition of the Amnesty International Campaigning Manual has been published in response to demand and has been slightly revised to include a new section in Chapter 10, Outreach/Working on Lesbian and Gay Human Rights. Very few changes have been made to other parts of the Manual and most of the text remains as it first appeared in the 1997 edition; as a result, some information may now be out-of-date. A third edition of the Manual, which will incorporate full revision and updating, is planned for the future and any comments on the contents of the manual would be very welcome contributions to that process.

First published 1997. Second edition 2001. by Amnesty International Publications 1 Easton Street, London WC1X 8DJ, United Kingdom www.amnesty.org

ISBN: 0 86210 271 5

AI Index: ACT 10/002/2001

Original language: English

Printed by: Blackmore Ltd, Dorset, United Kingdom All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. 1

CONTENTS

Preface / 1 A note on terminology/2 Glossary / 3 Introduction / 5

SECTION ONE CAMPAIGNING IN A CHANGING WORLD Chapter 1 Strategic Campaigning / 11 What is strategic planning? / 12 Making choices / 14 Principles of good campaigning / 15 Principles in practice / 16 Tools for building strategies / 24 Possible objectives for campaigns / 26 Chapter 2 Campaigning in the Modern World / 29 Relations between Countries / 31 Military, Security and Police Links and Transfers / 39 Information Technology / 51 Chapter 3 Organizing for Action / 57 International action planning / 58 Campaigning on a national level / 59 Theme campaigning / 66 Campaigning and organizational health / 68 Chapter 4 Responding to Crises / 73

Criteria for launching a crisis response / 74 A beginning for long-term work / 74 Aims of crisis response / 75 AI policy and crisis response / 75 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Section objectives / 76 Mobilizing for action / 76 Mobilizing a large-scale reaction / 81 Campaigning techniques / 81 Chapter 5 Fundraising and Campaigning / 85 What is integrated fundraising and campaigning? / 86 Why integrate? / 87 The basics of fundraising / 87 Techniques for attracting support / 88 Techniques for consolidating support / 92 A sustainable strategy / 94 How integrated is your fundraising and campaigning? / 95 Help for fundraising / 96 Chapter 6 International Human Rights Standards and Organizations / 97 International human rights law / 98 Global and regional human rights standards / 98 Standards on specific subjects / 99 The importance of intergovernmental organizations / 105 The importance of international human rights standards / 106 Strengthening the international human rights framework / 107

Using the international human rights framework / 107

SECTION TWO HOW WE ACHIEVE OUR GOALS Chapter 7 Campaigning Techniques / 111 Letter-writing and petitions / 113 Speaking tours / 121 Public events and protests / 129 Contacts with embassies / 135 Celebrity support / 143 Contents Chapter 8 Preparing Campaign Materials / 147 Choosing the materials / 148 Content / 148 Writing and editing / 149 Design / 149 Printing / 150 Leaflets / 152 Outreach/Briefing papers / 152 Reports / 153 Posters / 154 Placards / 154 Banners / 155 Newsletters / 155 Photo exhibitions / 155 Postcards / 156 Stickers / 156 Videos and audio tapes / 157 Materials from the IS / 158 Internet campaigning / 158 Chapter 9 Media and Publicity Work / 159 The role of the media / 160 Constructing a media strategy / 160 Working with the media / 163 Winning coverage / 165 Trouble-shooting / 175 Media servicing from the IS / 178 Coordinating the media work of others / 179 Monitoring and evaluation / 180 Chapter 10 Outreach / 181

Activating Society / 181 The Business Community / 189 Military and Law Enforcement Officers / 201 The International Legal Network / 207 Trade Unions / 213 Youth Activists / 217 Religious Groups / 223 The Medical Sector / 229 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Working on Women’s Human Rights / 235 Working on Children’s Human Rights / 241 Working on Lesbian and Gay Human Rights/ 247 Cooperation with the Human Rights Movement / 257 Chapter 11 Home Government Lobbying / 263 Why approaching home governments is important / 264 Developing a strategy / 264 Campaigning methods / 268 Holding governments to account / 270 Practicalities of lobbying / 271 Bilateral action on human rights by governments / 275 Chapter 12 Human Rights Education / 277 AI and human rights education / 278 A closer look at human rights education / 278 Integrating human rights education in campaigning / 280 Chapter 13 Evaluation / 281 The importance of evaluation / 282 Why do you want to evaluate? / 282 What do you want to evaluate? / 282

Timing / 283 Resources / 284 What information is required? / 284 Assessment / 285 Presenting the the results / 286 Useful Quotations / 287 Useful Addresses / 307 Useful publications / 313 Mobilizing the IS for Action during Crises / 317 Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Index/319 1

PREFACE

About this manual

For more than 40 years Amnesty International (AI) members have been campaigning to protect and promote human rights. This manual aims to pass on the experience of these campaigners in an accessible format. We hope it will become a well-thumbed reference book for all those campaigning for human rights. Although the manual stresses that all parts of AI's work, such as fundraising, campaigning and organization, should be integrated, the book has been divided up into selfcontained sections. This will, we hope, make it easier to use and enable activists to photocopy or refer to particular sections as the need arises. This manual has been written primarily for AI campaigners. However, it should prove useful for all those

involved in the movement and perhaps for some people in other campaigning organizations. It is an external document which can be given to people outside AI. The book has been designed to be relevant for those in small as well as large AI Sections, and for newcomers to campaigning as well as veterans. Crucially, it is not a blueprint for action. Rather, it is a guide. Some techniques may apply to particular campaigns or Sections, some may not. However, many of the guiding principles - such as the need to prepare a strategy in advance and evaluate any action -- are universally applicable. The Amnesty International Campaigning Manual is the product of a special project at the International Secretariat (IS) carried out by Patrick Earle. Special thanks go to him for preparing, organizing and writing the manual. Thanks also go to the authors of the US Section’s Campaigning Manual for Groups, to the Dutch and UK Sections for providing materials, and to the Australian, Polish, South Korean and many other AI structures that offered advice or

examples of their work. The Campaigning Program at the IS had overall responsibility for the project. For more information AI's campaigning is constantly developing and evolving. Its diversity and flexibility help make it effective. Therefore this manual can never be definitive. To find out about any current policy or to obtain advice about campaigning methods or particular actions, consult the appropriate body of AI. "Labels are for filing. Labels are for clothing. Labels are not for people." Martina Navratilova, tennis champion 2 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual If there is an AI Section or coordinating structure in your country, contact the Section office or the appropriate coordinator. If they cannot answer your question, they will forward it to the IS in London.

If there is no one to contact in your country, contact the IS directly at: Amnesty International, Campaigning Program, International Secretariat, 1 Easton Street, London WC1X 0DW, United Kingdom

Tel: 020 7413 5500

Fax: 020 7956 1157

e-mail: amnestyis@amnesty.org

A note on terminology with reference to Chapter 10, Outreach/Working on Lesbian and Gay Human Rights

Language and terminology in the area of sexuality can be problematic. People’s self-perceptions and self-identifications can vary widely from culture to culture, as well as within each culture. Many women and men whose principal emotional-sexual attraction or conduct is towards people of the same sex will not necessarily identify as "lesbian" or "gay", for many reasons. Some may identify with other analogous terms which are more meaningful in their particular cultural context. Others may not see their sexuality as a basis on which to construct an identity, or may find it difficult to apply a fixed label to their sexuality. In this handbook the terms "lesbian" and "gay" have been used because they are the English terms most commonly used in international human rights discourse. However, this is in no way intended to ignore the diversity of other terms and identities, nor to deny the cultural

connotations attached to these two terms. "Sexual orientation" is used here to denote the direction of emotional-sexual attraction or conduct. This can be towards people of the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation), towards people of both sexes (bisexual orientation) or towards people of the same sex (homosexual orientation). The term "transgendered" refers to people who experience a psychological identification with the opposite biological sex which may be profound and compelling and which may lead some to seek "gender reassignment" through medical procedures. This is generally regarded as an issue concerning a person’s "gender identity" rather than their sexual orientation. However, patterns of discrimination and abuse against transgendered people are closely connected to those experienced by non-heterosexuals. Increasingly, lesbians, gay men, and bisexual and transgendered men and women are campaigning together as part of a single movement for lesbians, gay, bisexual and transgender rights, often referred to as LGBT rights or

rights of sexual minorities. Some AI networks, particularly in Englishspeaking countries, use the acronym LGBT in their organizing. In the interests of readability and in order to respect the wealth of terms, a variety of forms are used in this handbook, largely interchangeably. So, for example, the term "lesbian and gay human rights" should be read as shorthand for the human rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgendered people.

NM GLOSSARY g A question (to answer to help devise strategy or to pose to others) A point being highlighted A sub-point being highlighted A warning, or a particularly important point Item on a checklist of things you can do A tip Annual General Meeting Amnesty International Amnesty International Canadian Section (English-speaking) AI Members for Lesbian and Gay Concerns Amnesty International New Zealand Amnesty International United Kingdom Amnesty International of the USA Audio News Access Tape Audio News Release Association for Progressive Communications

Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation Amnesty International Arabic Publishing An AI Section’s coordination group Campaigns and Crisis Response program Committee on the Rights of the Child Economic and Social Council Editorial Amnistía Internacional Editions francophones d'Amnesty International Extrajudicial execution European Union Female genital mutilation Fundraising Working Group Human rights awareness Human rights education International Bar Association International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights International Commission of Jurists International Council Meeting International Committee of the Red Cross International Executive Committee International Fund-Raising Group Intergovernmental organization International Labour Conference fj c AGM AI AICS (ES) AI MLGC AINZ AIUK AIUSA ANAT ANR APC APEC ARABAI co-group CCR CRC ECOSOC EDAI EFAI EJE EU FGM FWG HRA HRE IBA ICCPR ICESCR ICJ ICM ICRC

IEC IFRG IGO ILC 1 4 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual ILO IMET IS IWGC LGBT LIOP MEC MSP NAT NATO NGE NGO OAS OAU ODA OSCE Q&A RAN RMP SWOT SYSTEC UA UDHR UK UN UNDP UNESCO UNHCR UNICEF USA VNR International Labour Organisation International Military Education and Training International Secretariat International Working Group for Children Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Legal and International Organizations Program Military, economic and cultural (relations) Military, security and police (transfers) News Access Tape North Atlantic Treaty Organization Non-governmental entity Non-governmental organization Organization of American States Organization of African Unity Overseas Development Assistance Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Questions and answers Regional Action Network Research and Mandate Program Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats Systematic Evaluation of Techniques Urgent Action Universal Declaration of Human Rights

United Kingdom United Nations UN Development Programme UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UN High Commissioner for Refugees UN Children's Fund United States of America Video News Release 1 "What you do may seem terribly insignificant, but it is terribly important that you do it anyway." Mahatma Gandhi © AI

INTRODUCTION

Amnesty International (AI) began as a campaign in 1961. The newspaper article in the British Observer newspaper that started what has become a worldwide movement was never intended as simply a piece of journalism or research. It was meant to move people to action -- to achieve change. Since then, achieving change through campaigning action has been AI's mission. To build on AI's success, the movement must adapt to the changing environment in which it operates. The apparent certainties of the Cold War world have gone. The framework of international relations continues to change. The processes of protest and social development within societies have also been changing.

Underground protest movements have emerged to engage openly with new forms of government. Journalists used to testing the boundaries of official tolerance are experimenting with exploiting the power of public opinion to push for change. Mass protests and industrial action have been supplemented by lobbying, legal action and marketing. Public actions have ceased to be a useful technique in some societies, but are becoming central in others. New technology is opening up new possibilities to those who can access it and realize its potential. Clearly, AI must understand and develop the new ways we can mobilize our communities, other organizations and governments. 6 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual AI's mission is long term. We have already been campaigning for more than 35 years. It is likely that we will still be campaigning in 35 years' time. Campaigning is more than a series of campaigns or actions. It is also a process of building a movement capable of responding to the challenges ahead.

As campaigners we need to look at how we can contribute to building and sustaining the fundraising, campaigning and organizational structures in the long term -- while not losing the sense of urgency about stopping the violations in the here and now. That is why all these areas are covered to some extent in this campaigning manual. AI's campaigning mission to achieve real change in people's lives is what gives all these activities their sense and purpose. One of the challenges for campaigners is to remind others in AI of these objectives, and to help build a campaigning culture in every part of the movement. An integrated approach Over the years, as AI has grown, it has been possible to lose sight of its mission to campaign to stop and prevent specific violations of human rights, and promote observance of all human rights. Board members can become absorbed by the details and difficulties of ensuring smooth administration. Researchers may see results simply in terms of the quality of information

gathered. Fundraisers can see the figures next to the dollar sign as the sole mark of success. Media officers can measure results in column inches, and lobbyists can judge their effectiveness in the wording of government statements. All these activities are important, but they are parts of the greater whole of AI's campaigning mission. Campaigners have an important role to play in keeping in focus this simple goal, of making a difference to human rights. Research allows AI to be clear about what needs to be changed and the best ways of achieving that change. Reliable research is one of the pillars of the credibility underpinning AI's effectiveness. Fundraising provides us with the resources to campaign. It offers many people the chance to make a positive and concrete contribution to our work. It allows campaigners to reach a broader audience. Independent funding also underlines AI's independence, another source of its credibility. Administration enables us to organize and develop our campaigning

resources most efficiently. Building organizational structures can help to increase our campaigning capacity and effectiveness. Lobbying can persuade governments to agree to human rights standards and to abide by them. Media work is one way of shaming the guilty and alerting and mobilizing the concerned. © PRESS ASSOCIATION A long-term campaign Cardinal Beran, one of the first prisoners of conscience adopted by AI, expresses his appreciation for AI’s work by lighting the AI candle at a ceremony in Rome in 1967 Responding to change AI needs a campaigning culture to help it respond effectively to changing circumstances. A changing world demands that we be creative. AI was born in a world dominated and divided by superpower rivalry, and by many national struggles for independence. Memories of world war and genocide were fresh. A newly established United Nations (UN) carried the hopes of many for a new world based on justice, peace and respect for human rights. All of the human rights violations

that AI has been combating for decades continue to blight people's lives around the planet. In some societies the prison gates have been opened and the prisoners of conscience freed. At least 11 former prisoners of conscience have gone on to become heads of state or government. In other societies, however, new forms of repression have emerged, including extrajudicial executions and "disappearances". AI must respond to this changing world by developing new ways of inspiring people to act in defence of human rights and thinking of new ways to approach governments, our communities and other organizations. International solidarity The principle of international solidarity at the heart of AI makes it different from locally-focused campaigning organizations. The focus on effecting human rights change in other countries means our starting point must be developing an understanding of how international action -- from AI's membership and our society -- is best able to contribute to ending specific human rights violations

in those countries. Today there are more links between more countries than ever before. Some of these result directly from the enormous growth and changes in world trade, others from the breaking down of Cold War barriers. Some are attributable to the rapid development of communications 7 Introduction technology and the establishment of global media empires, others to shifting military alliances and relationships. Seeking to take advantage of these growing connections and interrelationships is one of the challenges increasingly at the heart of AI's work. Responding to human rights crises A major new challenge has been the breakdown in some countries of the established power structures to which AI has traditionally appealed. This breakdown has often been accompanied by a sharp rise in killings and "disappearances". New technology and global media networks can quickly make these crises dominate public and political consciousness the world over. But this attention can be selective. Other

crises, with all their human tragedies, can remain forgotten or be ignored. AI has developed and is still developing new techniques for responding quickly and effectively to these crises and the selectivity of the international response. The international human rights framework Part of this response involves a reexamination of the international frameworks and mechanisms for dealing with mass violations of human rights. Much of AI's campaigning focuses on holding governments accountable to the standards they have themselves agreed to through the UN and regional intergovernmental bodies. This framework of international law and human rights standards is of fundamental importance to AI's campaigning. AI, along with other organizations and individuals, has also made important contributions to constructing this framework. Human rights reporting mechanisms have opened up valuable new avenues for holding governments to account and for mobilizing action. A major challenge for AI is to protect and

build on these gains, to make human rights protection and promotion more 8 A broader movement One of the significant changes that AI has contributed to and benefited from over the past 35 years is the growth in the human rights movement. There are more non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working to stop the violations that form AI's mandate than ever before. There are also more organizations working on associated civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. Increasingly, campaigning strategies need to look at how AI can best contribute to and engage with domestic human rights movements. As AI faces the challenges of the 21st century, it does so as one part of a large and dynamic movement that has succeeded in placing and keeping the struggle for human rights at centre stage. It has done so not in an abstract sense but by campaigning directly and often successfully on behalf of countless thousands of individuals subjected to repression around the world. Tools of campaigning

More than any other campaigning technique, letter-writing has come to be identified with AI. Yet it is not, nor has it ever been, the only campaigning method that AI has organized. AI has built up a tool-box of techniques to combat human rights abuses -- and has happily borrowed "tools" from others when necessary. Learning to use the right tools for the job at hand is part of learning the trade of campaigning -- as is developing new tools for new problems. Amnesty International Campaigning Manual central to the programs of the UN, regional bodies and individual governments. and to be clear on how we can help make these changes. This means trying to understand why and how we can be effective in changing circumstances. Part of this demands reflection on what has worked and why -- and what has not worked and why. Such an assessment is partly a process of formal evaluation and partly a process of ongoing reflection, individually and collectively as campaigners and as an organization. A 1989 study of AI's

campaigning provided strong evidence that developing a clear strategy increased the chances of success. There are without doubt tensions inherent to AI's campaigning. We consciously seek to mobilize anger and outrage at terrible violations of human rights and to transform that anger into effective pressure -- also known as "polite and courteous" appeals! We want to demonstrate the depth of anger and strength of our commitment to protest until the violations cease. Sometimes, this demands angry words, public demonstrations and direct confrontation. Sometimes, it means pursuit of dialogue and quiet words behind closed doors. Often, both approaches are needed. As campaigners in AI our commitment must be to all these things but to none of them exclusively. Everything we do must be governed by what we believe will most benefit the victims and potential victims of human rights abuses, rather than by a blinkered commitment to a particular technique. We will get the best sense of this from reflecting on the successes

and failures of our campaigning and the campaigning of others. We hope that this manual will help human rights campaigners in their work, so that all our efforts to end human rights abuses the world over will have an even greater impact. Campaigning principles Several general principles of campaigning have been identified as a result of the work of AI and others over the years. One of these is the need to focus energies and resources for maximum effect. Another is the need to clearly identify what changes we want, section one

CAMPAIGNING IN A CHANGING WORLD N Strategic Campaigning N Campaigning in the Modern World N Organizing for Action N Responding to Crises N Fundraising and Campaigning N International Human Rights Standards and Organizations "Narrowing down a broad humanitarian mandate into a limited set of issues and priorities is highly challenging. Relief and development nongovernmental organizations operate in complex local, national and international arenas, and juggle with many

competing priorities. The strategic planning process can help to eliminate unnecessary conflict and to unify stakeholders around a shared vision and a common purpose." The Oxfam Handbook, 1995 1

CHAPTER 1 STRATEGIC CAMPAIGNING As one of the largest and most ambitious human rights organizations in the world, AI faces difficult decisions every day. Making the right choices at the right time in order to be effective is the skill of strategic campaigning. This chapter looks at some of the key principles that guide our decisions. Contents What is strategic campaigning? / 12 Evaluation / 14 Making choices / 14 Principles of good campaigning / 15 Principles in practice / 16 Focus / 16 Clarity / 17 Credibility / 19 Relevance / 20 Timing / 21 Commitment / 22 Tools for building strategies / 24 Strategic campaigning cycle / 24 Building a country strategy / 24 The need for specific country strategies / 26 Possible objectives for campaigns / 26 12 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual

forms and tools have been developed to facilitate and encourage strategic thinking and planning. One of the best known and most commonly used is SWOT. This is a process for looking at the existing and potential Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats in an organization or of an issue. It can help to define the existing situation and the problems that need to be addressed so that objectives and strategy can be agreed (see box opposite). Strategic plans should be helpful tools rather than set formulas to be rigidly followed. Perfectly constructed strategic plans can be prepared and implemented - but they can still be the wrong plans! Thinking strategically is not a specialized or difficult process. Each of us can imagine a range of everyday situations where we have to make choices about what we will do - from how we travel to work to how we approach competitive sports. The objective of all AI’s campaigning is to protect people’s human rights. Simply asking yourself or others a few

questions before taking a particular course of action can help ensure your plans are taking you in the right direction. What is strategic campaigning? Strategic campaigning is choosing a specific course of action, on the basis of available information and resources, which will be most effective in achieving identified objectives. Campaigning is an organized course of action to achieve change. Letter-writing, lobbying, demonstrations, vigils and publicity are just some of the methods of campaigning we frequently use. But it is not possible for any campaigner, or AI as an organization, to do everything well and at once. We are therefore constantly faced with choices - about what we will do, how we will do it and when. Making the right choices at the right time is the heart and art of strategic campaigning. None of us makes the right choices all the time, but there are some core principles of effective campaigning that can help to guide our decisions. Strategic planning is the process of

agreeing where you are now (A), deciding where you would like to get to (B), and how you can best get there (see diagram below). Many strategic planning processes, You are at A. You need to get to B. You have to choose the best way of getting there. Public opinion, help from the legal community and international action are all options. © BEATE KUBITZ Strategic Campaigning 13 SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) STRENGTHS are positive factors of the AI Section that might be of particular importance in different campaigns or actions. They might include financial and material resources, good access to home government, a good public image, an efficient organizational structure, contacts (for example, in the media or other organizations), supporters, specialist knowledge or the existence of many groups. When planning your work, consider how your Section’s strengths might be useful in the context of a particular campaign. For example, if one of the international objectives of a campaign includes getting action from the Roman Catholic Church

hierarchy and you have a strong religious outreach program with that church, then this might be one of the most effective areas of work for the Section. WEAKNESSES are factors that inhibit the Section’s ability to act generally or on particular issues. Weaknesses might include a lack of experienced members, limited (or no) funds, lack of facilities, poor organizational capacity or poor public image. It is very important to identify your weaknesses so that you can either take steps to overcome them or avoid activities that you will be unable to cope with. OPPORTUNITIES are factors about your society which might affect your campaigning. They might include an interested and sympathetic media, close links between your society and the target country, a meeting of an aid consortium, a visit to your country by the head of state of that country, other organizations that might be able to put effective pressure on the targets of your campaigning, such as trade unions, women’s groups, professional groups or ethnic groups, and important dates

in the calendar. When planning your work on a campaign or action, consider how you might take advantage of these opportunities. THREATS are factors in your society that may have a negative impact on your ability to contribute to a campaign or action. They will usually be out of your control, although as campaigners we may, in the longer term, hope to change at least some of the factors that represent a threat. Threats might include a political or economic crisis, a hostile government, an intolerance of campaigning or voluntary organizations, business or other sectors saying that human rights are against the national interest, a poor image arising from factors beyond the group’s control, human rights violations, security issues, local restrictions on AI’s work, etc. Threats also need to be analysed carefully when planning involvement in a particular campaign or action.

Note: Strengths and Weaknesses are mostly internal questions and relate to AI, Opportunities and Threats are external and relate to the campaigning environment. Members and board members should be asking these questions, as might journalists. You need to have the answers. gQUESTIONS g Can you explain how your campaign will contribute to changing a human rights situation? g Can you say why you are taking this course of action rather than another? Explicit strategies and plans are particularly important for AI, as it is a membership organization. Accountability is essential. The membership must also be kept informed as this enables them to choose how their skills, creativity and knowledge can best be used to make the strategy succeed. g If it is successful, can you say what will be different at the end of your campaign from the beginning? N AI’s mandate and policies, including working on all the mandate issues and balance; 14 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Choices are always made within

certain parameters, as they are in everyday life. Some of these are clear

for AI’s campaigners: N international campaigning priorities established by the movement and specific requests from the IS and reflected in the international campaigning calendar. The other parameters are largely set by your particular campaigning environment and resources, which can be determined by answering the

following questions: Evaluation There is no guaranteed way of ensuring that every "strategic plan" is indeed strategic, or is the right plan. However, there are ways to help make sure we learn from our experiences and those of others and use these lessons to improve our future work. Foremost of these is formal monitoring and evaluation, which is dealt with separately in Chapter 13. Evaluation can simply involve reflecting on past campaigns. Alternatively, you can look at the campaigning of others and discuss with them the causes of their successes and failures. Making choices Having chosen to campaign, and to coordinate campaigning, campaigners are immediately faced with choices. Which members of the target government should we be appealing to and about what? Should we post 50 letters or complete five petitions for the same effort? Who should we approach in our government? Should we focus our campaign on the death penalty or on torture? AI is perhaps luckier than many organizations in that its overall

objectives (its mandate) are clear and specific. Nevertheless, campaign coordinators in every Section are continuously faced with strategic choices about direction and priority. gQUESTIONS g Do you have a membership to mobilize? g How much money can you budget for a campaign? g How is AI seen in your society? g Is your government hostile or open to AI? g Is your government open to taking up human rights concerns with other governments? g Does your media influence government policy? The child may be able to go up the steep path, but the grandmother will need to take the longer way round. Choices must be made on the basis of your situation. © BEATE KUBITZ "No one starts a campaign... without first being clear in their mind WHAT they intend to achieve by the campaign and HOW they intend to conduct it. This governing principle will set [the campaign’s] course, prescribe the scale of means and effort which is required, and makes its influence felt throughout down to the smallest operational detail."

Carl von Clauswitz, a renowned military strategist g Who in your society may be able to influence the human rights situation in another country? g Which sections of your society should you prioritize for developing support for AI? g What materials are most organization of idealistic effective for mobilizing AI members AI has been described as an Campaigners are never in a works towards achieving its position to control all the factors that objectives through realistic, will decide success or failure in any practical steps that have campaign. If they could, success could contributed to real change. be guaranteed every time! pragmatists, or realistic or the public? idealists. Its mandate looks impossibly idealistic, yet it There are always other actors and circumstances beyond our control. Some of these, such as a change of government or peace negotiations, may present opportunities. Others, such as business, military or political leaders voicing opposition to human rights, may represent threats that have

to be taken into consideration in any strategy. Campaigning is also about changing parameters. Increasing AI’s membership or support in the community, for instance, can open up new campaigning possibilities. The campaigning principles Carefully timed events can reinforce the impact of a campaign. During the UN World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, the UK Section hired a tank and drove to the Chinese Embassy in London to protest against human rights violations in China. The tank was chosen as a well-recognized symbol of the student demonstrations in outlined below can help when making choices, deciding strategies and putting your plans together. Beijing’s Tiananmen Square. © AI Strategic Campaigning 15 Principles of good campaigning Campaigning and strategy were originally military terms. However, good campaigning and good strategy are as important to those who seek to prevent war as to those who wage it. Understanding why some campaigns worked and others did not can help you make choices about how

to campaign in the future. The following is a list of some of these key principles. N Focus M objectives must be specific M resources and energy must be concentrated M research and analysis are needed to decide focus N Clarity M objectives and strategy need to be communicated clearly M all action needs to be clearly related to the objectives M communications must be clear, internally and externally N Credibility M in communications, the messenger can be as important as the message M AI’s motivation and information must be trusted and reliable N Relevance M AI’s campaigning has to connect with the people whom it wants to involve M AI’s campaigning has to offer a solution relevant to the problem N Timing M the same action will have different effects at different times N Commitment M the campaigning will not stop until the violations end M different strategies and techniques will be tried to discover the most effective 16 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual These principles of good

campaigning are interrelated and need to be integrated. Why they are important, and some examples of how they have been applied in practice, are detailed below. Fulfilling AI’s mandate is a longterm objective. Over the period of a particular campaign, say six or 12 months, or during a strategy period of two to five years, it might be unrealistic to expect that AI will stop torture in a particular country. So the objective of ending torture may not be specific enough to know what action will be most effective for AI and others to take. In such a case AI’s researchers and campaigners need to identify (at least internally) the specific steps or changes most likely to contribute to ending torture. The same applies to the other violations in AI’s mandate. The

changes, for example, could be: N legislation to prohibit torture; N training of prison and police officials; N immediate suspension and prosecution of officials believed responsible for torture; N independent and immediate access to detainees; N an independent inquiry into allegations of torture. The steps to be taken could, for

example, be: N building public awareness; N letter-writing to the government or prison officials; N lobbying the home government to make representations. Principles in practice Focus

Specific objectives: You should be able to state any objective in a simple sentence. If you cannot, then you may be trying to achieve a number of different objectives. These

need to be stated separately in order to: N see whether the objectives are conflicting or complementary; N allow decisions to be made about priorities; N measure whether you have achieved your objective. Usually there are many problems that need to be solved, so you need to work out which is the most urgent, and whether there is a natural or logical sequence to solving them. While the objective of AI’s campaigning is always to protect people’s human rights, we need to be specific about what changes are necessary for this to happen. A group of AI campaign coordinators outside the International Secretariat © AI Then check that the relationship between these are clear. These shorter-term objectives "There is one key rule in any sort of communication... start from where your audience is, not from where become the focus of campaigning and allow progress to be measured on the road to abolition of torture or the ending of other violations.

Focus energy and resources: Being focused when deciding campaigning objectives and strategies is

important because it: N helps to make sure that resources of time and money are directed to where they are most likely to have an impact; N keeps people motivated by increasing the chances of success and therefore builds capacity to take on more work in the longer term. Why allocate resources of time or money to campaigns that have unrealistic objectives when they could be allocated to something that could have an impact? Campaigns appearing to have unrealistic or unachievable objectives find it more difficult to attract support. There is a credibility gap. "Know the adversary and you are." Sue Ward, Getting the Message Across, Journeyman Press, 1992 Trying to do too much at one time know yourself; in a hundred can spread and exhaust the resources [campaigns] you will never which need to be focused for maximum be in peril. When you are effect. ignorant of the adversary but

know yourself, your chances Research and analysis: of winning or losing are The issues AI confronts may be simple equal. If ignorant both of but the context in which they take place your adversary and of is always a complex mix of economic, yourself you are certain in social, political and cultural factors. every [campaign] to be in The more knowledge AI has on these Sun Tzu, around 500 BC peril." factors the more likely it will be able to make its impact on them positive and effective. AI campaigning is about changing behaviour. It is about persuading police to respect the rights of detainees or encouraging members of the public to sign a petition. To change behaviour it is useful to find out why people or organizations are behaving as they are, or what may motivate them to act. Sometimes it is possible only to make an informed guess, but even this can help to show how our actions can affect behaviour. Strategic Campaigning 17 Information and analysis are the starting point of all campaigns. They

allow us to define the problem we are trying to solve or the opportunities we are trying to take advantage of. The analysis of available information will affect every part of a campaign, from deciding objectives to determining and implementing strategy. While much of this research, particularly on the target country, is primarily the responsibility of the IS, research and analysis by Sections involved in the campaign are just as important, particularly in informing national strategies. There is a standard type of information and analysis that are important to AI’s campaigning, which the following questions might help ascertain. g Who is responsible for the human rights violations? gQUESTIONS g Why are the violations happening and which factors could AI influence? g Are there particular moments or times when we may have more influence? g How could our membership, society and government influence those responsible for the violations? g How can we persuade them to exert this influence?

Clarity Objectives and strategy need to be clear. This is particularly important in a membership organization, where individual initiative is necessary and encouraged. Clarity enables all involved to bring their skills, knowledge and creativity to bear. Once they know what is to be achieved and how, they can make rational decisions about how they and those they can mobilize can contribute most effectively. It also minimizes the possibility that members 18 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Shock to generate interest The UK Section of AI has for a number of years run a very successful series of fundraising and membership recruitment advertisements in national newspapers and magazines. Their advertisements broke many advertising conventions by relying heavily on a long text. They use shock to attract the readers’ interest. They then tell a compelling story to keep that interest while they explain a terrible human rights situation. Finally, they offer the reader an opportunity to do something about

it. Their target audience has been people with a tertiary education, interest in world affairs and disposable income. They have gained many donations and new members. Shock advertisements have worked well in Ireland and the UK, but not in other countries. Look for important dates and anniversaries which might be helpful to a campaign. Also watch out for dates to avoid as offence can easily be caused by planning action for a time that is sensitive in a particular culture or country. will take action that is counterproductive to the strategy. All action needs to be clearly related to these objectives. This enables all suggestions for actions to be measured against strategy and objective, and allows resources to be used most effectively. Communications must be clear, "I think that is what hurts most. Until... people like that said they had doubts about our convictions no one really wanted to know. Yet nothing is different now to what it internally and externally. People have to know what you are saying and what

you are asking for. This may mean messages need to be expressed in different ways to different audiences. Governments and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) may know what the indivisibility and universality of human rights mean. Upwards of 98 per cent of a broader public - radio and television audiences - will not. If you say people should never have to choose between freedom from fear of hunger and freedom from fear of torture, you express the same concept in a way more people can relate to. Communications must be clearly related to purpose. A detailed report may be the best way to influence government, but not the best way of persuading members of the public to take action. was 10 or 12 years ago... All that has changed is the people telling it... Unfair isn’t a strong enough word for what I feel about it all, but I can’t think of another one." Carole Richardson, writing from prison, was wrongly convicted in the UK after an unfair trial in 1974. She was freed in 1986.

Reinforcing AI’s credibility: a queue of people wait to present testimony to an AI delegation visiting Guatemala. © JEAN-MARIE SIMON Strategic Campaigning 19 Credibility The messenger can be as important as the message.The words of Carole Richardson (see margin) describe how the campaign to release her gained momentum after leading members of British society expressed doubts about the safety of her conviction. Campaigning organizations need to be listened to if they are to stand any chance of success. They need to be listened to by those from whom they are asking for help and by those they need to convince to take some action to stop a human rights violation. In many societies, to be listened to takes more than being right or just. AI’s credibility means that its information is generally believed. It is widely referred to - by journalists, academics, policy advisers, other campaigning organizations, diplomats and government departments. Other individuals or organizations could be

making the same claims and calling for the same action, but they will often find it harder to be believed or to have an impact. Since organizational credibility is important to the success of AI’s campaigning goals, it follows that 20 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual campaigners should both use this credibility and be careful to protect it. It is much easier for an organization to lose credibility than to gain it! AI’s motivation and information must be trusted and reliable. Its organizational credibility rests on the

following: N the commitment of its membership to campaign; N the issues it campaigns on are enshrined in internationally agreed standards; N its information is trusted, its recommendations are reasonable and clearly related to the problems identified; N the consistency of its campaigning record - that it campaigns on countries and individuals whatever their political ideologies and allegiances; N perceptions of relevance and effectiveness; N attention to "forgotten", hidden and often unpopular situations; N its focus on the need to stop violations rather than winning agreement on their causes, which could easily become an attack on ideologies or systems of government; N it can point to evidence that AI works, such as individuals released or treated better; N people relate to the issue of unfair treatment. arms transfers, the death penalty, own government foreign policy; N campaigning on themes or issues, including women’s rights. The main focus of AI’s campaigning is international solidarity.

People take action about human rights violations in a country they may never have heard of for many reasons. Sometimes they feel it is their responsibility or duty. More often they respond because you made them interested. Interest might not be enough on its own, but it is generally an important starting point. Perceiving something as relevant is a major motivating factor in personal and organizational behaviour. AI seeks to take advantage of it routinely in outreach work (see Chapter 10). We seek to involve trade unionists in AI campaigns by demonstrating that some of the individuals we are working for are trade unionists. "The price of liberty is eternal vigilance" is an often used quote. It suggests that we all share an interest in protecting our rights - even when ours are not being violated or threatened. The argument that we are all diminished by allowing acts of injustice to go on around us is another way of appealing for people to see the relevance of taking action. Whatever its

truth, it will appeal to some but not to others. Many other campaigning organizations can rely on a clear sense of relevance and sometimes selfinterest when asking people to take action. This applies to environmental campaigners, for example, who are trying to stop a toxic dump in their Relevance AI’s campaigning has to connect with the people it wants to involve. Some of AI’s campaigning is directly or indirectly related to our own societies

such as: N campaigning on refugee issues,

Carnations and Colombia: challenging assumptions Researching information on Colombia in preparation for the international campaign in 1988, the Australian Section discovered that Colombia was a major exporter of carnations. This surprised many, partly because Colombia’s image was overwhelmingly of drugs and drug-related violence. One aim of the campaign was to change these perceptions and highlight the human rights violations in Colombia. Carnations proved a positive and attractive way of challenging these images. For example, a local AI group in Townsville, a small town in Queensland, was filmed during a publicity action in which they used carnations. They were then interviewed on a major regional television network.

Making it easy to say ‘yes’: a non-AI campaign Tim Anderson was convicted in 1991 of charges arising from the bombing of the 1978 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Sydney, Australia. He immediately lodged an appeal and applied for bail pending the appeal. The campaign group protesting his innocence decided to seek support from prominent Australians for the bail application. The stated objective was to get bail, although the secondary objective was to gain widespread support and favourable media coverage. A short statement expressing concern over aspects of the conviction and calling for his release on bail was drafted. It included a pledge to provide $A 1,000 in surety to support bail, which was intended to demonstrate the commitment of those signing the statement. Over 30 leading Australians signed. The bail application was refused, but the judge remarked on the extent of community concern over the safety of the conviction and this received substantial media coverage. (The conviction was

quashed in the appeal court six months later.) Had the statement asked people to state a belief in Tim Anderson’s innocence, rather than concern over the conviction, many fewer people would have signed it. The strategy would have failed. Its success lay in making the statement easy to support. community. AI campaigners often have to work harder and more creatively to make issues seem relevant to the people from whom support is wanted. People define relevance in many different ways. However, most campaigners asking others to take action are likely at some time to be asked "Why should I?" The answer needs to satisfy their needs - which might be quite different from the campaigner’s motivation. In short, interest, concern, anger and shock can all make people feel emotionally and intellectually involved in an issue. Campaigning also has to offer a solution relevant to the problem. Some people will take action no matter how hopeless the cause seems. Many others,

however, will want to know that: M the solutions AI are suggesting are practical and realistic; M their support or action will be effective. AI communications need to stress both. If members and supporters do not see AI offering relevant solutions to problems, they may well take their support to other organizations or simply stop believing they can do anything. Let the membership know of every success to which they have contributed. Strategic Campaigning 21 Timing The same action will have different effects at different times. As acrobats, actors and comedians say, timing is everything! AI’s campaigning, whatever its extent, is only one factor in the dynamics of change. The success or failure of campaigning is shaped by its context and the interplay of a wide range of factors. Timing is one of the most important factors. N Urgent Actions (UAs) were developed by AI in response to changing patterns of human rights violations and the increasingly apparent need for action to be taken

very quickly if it was to be effective. N Issuing a major human rights report on a country prior to a meeting of an aid consortium on that country is more likely to build pressure than releasing the report after the meeting. N A media conference or media release issued on a quiet news day is more likely to get coverage than one that competes with other major news stories. N Action in the lead-up to discussion of legislation is more likely to have an impact than after the law has been passed. N It is usually best not to organize major membership activity during a holiday season. Commitment AI’s campaign will not stop until the violations end. This commitment is

important because: N people suffering and at risk of human rights violations have placed trust and hope in AI and AI has a responsibility towards them; N governments must be denied the hope that they can simply ignore the campaign until AI gives up and goes away. Try different strategies and techniques to discover the most effective. A commitment to creativity is

important for several reasons: N it helps to make campaigning interesting, to yourself and others - and helps to motivate people to become involved; N it can get your campaigning noticed; N it makes it more difficult for governments to come up with effective counter-strategies and tactics. Think of who you are trying to influence. N Have they become familiar with and adept at handling the letters generated by AI members? N Will a different approach, or perhaps an approach to a different part of government or society, help to regain the impact that the first wave of letters had? 22 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual N Many UN discussions of human rights happen on a fixed timetable. Individual Sections need to lobby governments months before such meetings occur. N A news release issued immediately after an event has the greatest chance of winning and influencing coverage. A news release a few days or a week later is more likely to be ignored. understood and acted on by others.

Less can go wrong with simple ideas. c Make it easy The easier it is for someone to do something, the more likely they are to do it. If you send an appeal asking for a donation, how easy is it for someone to respond? Have you made it clear who the payment should be made to? Have you provided an envelope for them to return their donation in? Is the postage pre-paid? If you ask an organization or individual to send a letter on behalf of a prisoner, have you provided all the information they need, such as the address, background information, points for letters? If you are asking a trade union or other association to pass a motion of support, should you provide them with a model resolution that is likely to need minimum modification? c Do not ask people for what they cannot deliver Whether in lobbying, outreach or other campaigning, it is important to find out what the person you are approaching is able to do. Journalists, for example, may not be able to guarantee that a story will make it to print or to air as this

decision is taken by an editor. Government officials may not be senior enough to take the necessary decisions. Making unrealistic demands of people may lead to frustration on both sides, and can make AI look unprofessional and badly informed. Representatives of governments must be clear about what AI is asking

for: the immediate release of a prisoner of conscience, abolition of the death penalty, etc. c Success breeds success Everyone is motivated by achieving what they set out to do. Successes create new opportunities and lead to new challenges. They also create momentum and attract support. Defining success and failure is partly in your hands. If your campaign cTIPS c Keep it simple Simple plans are usually easier to organize and therefore more likely to happen. Simple ideas are easier to explain and more likely to be aims to end torture in six months, people will be disappointed if it fails, even if your campaigning has secured access to detention centres by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) - a major safeguard against torture. If, however, you had stated access to detention centres as an aim and then achieved it, people will be motivated to continue campaigning because they can see that they have helped to achieve change. The first and perhaps most difficult step has been won and you will

probably be able to build on this success. The results of the campaign were the same - but one is seen as a failure, the other as a success. Sometimes it is useful to state your objectives as the things you hope to achieve if everything you can control goes to plan and circumstances are favourable. But it is also useful to state realistic aims that you think you will be able to achieve if some things do not go to plan or external circumstances are not favourable. Measuring the effect of AI’s work is Maris-Stella Mabitje, a former political detainee in South Africa, meets AI members who successfully campaigned on her behalf © ANDERS KALLERSAND not always easy or possible. Processes of change in any society are complex, and it can be very hard to judge AI’s precise Strategic Campaigning 23 impact on a situation. Yet it is normally possible to build into our strategies some indicators of success (for example, the number of governments or NGOs supporting access to detainees by the ICRC), even if the impact of this

on the pattern of torture is a matter of informed guesswork for some time. To check how specific and measurable your strategy is, ask yourself what you hope and what you expect will be different after the campaign. Write down the answers. c Set the agenda Campaigning on the death penalty provides a good example of how different sides of the debate try to define the issue in different ways. Those in favour of executions want the death penalty defined as a law and order issue and seek to play on fears of crime or violence to mobilize public opinion and put pressure on politicians and governments. Abolitionists try to ensure the death penalty is defined as a human rights issue and seek to keep the debate focused on the cruelty of the punishment and the unfairness of the justice process. Abolitionists will often have to explain that there is no evidence that the death penalty is a deterrent to crime. This means acknowledging and trying to counter the fact that the death penalty is seen by

many as a law and order question. Other examples of this principle can be seen in the responses of governments to AI’s campaigning. Governments often seek to divert AI’s campaigning by trying to redefine the issue, for example by presenting AI’s report on torture as an infringement of national sovereignty. They may also attack AI’s credibility, motivation and information, or deflect the discussion into a debate about which rights are more important than others. N Quotations Establish a file of useful quotations. Include statements that you see in the media or obtain through campaigning from politicians, human rights activists, business leaders, etc. These quotes can 24 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual be useful, for example by showing the degree of support for AI or the issues AI is campaigning on. A collection of quotes is included in Appendix I. writing to the target government by members; M outreach, such as letters or statements by law societies and lawyers to the government and judges in the

target country; M lobbying/intergovernmental organization (IGO) work, such as raising the issue at the UN Commission on Human Rights and asking member governments to pass a resolution; M media work, such as publicity about military supplies and training that are contributing to human rights violations. N Decide the best way to get the action you need (action forms). This could be a major campaign involving most of the membership (country campaign), a very quick worldwide response (rapid response or UA), lobbying of key governments, long-term work by a few groups, a publicity splash, etc. N Evaluate the analysis of violations, the context and any changes, as well as the existing strategy and actions, and adjust to them as required. Look at AI’s position in your society and the links between your society and the target country - cultural, economic, institutional, political and/or military links (see Chapter 2). Then look at the opportunities any of these links may offer for influencing the human rights

situation in the target country, and develop strategies for exploiting these opportunities. Tools for building strategies Strategic campaigning cycle AI’s global strategies to improve human rights in particular countries and in relation to particular themes need to be explicit to enable national strategies to contribute to them. National campaigning strategies also need to be explicit to enable AI groups and other membership structures to campaign strategically. N Decide what the problem is (issue). This is distilled from an analysis of the human rights violations of concern to AI, the domestic political environment in which they occur, the forces (including individuals) that are directly or indirectly responsible for the violations, and those inside or outside the country who may influence them. Other factors worth considering are information on the effectiveness of past campaigning, whether current perceptions are adversely affecting domestic or international action on the problems, and whether the

government or security forces have developed strategies to evade accountability. N Agree on the specific change in the present situation that AI needs to work for in the short and long term (aims). This could be the repeal of particular legislation, the release of specific prisoners, an acknowledgement that violations have occurred and an explicit commitment to end them, ratification of international human rights instruments, etc. N Decide the best way to achieve these aims based on your earlier analysis.

This could be: M membership action, such as letter- Building a country strategy Answering the following questions may

help you develop a country strategy: gQUESTIONS g What is the human rights situation in the target country? Are torture and ill-treatment of prisoners, or "disappearances" widespread? g What specific changes do we want to see? Do we want action to improve the treatment of prisoners, to begin investigations into cases of "disappearance", etc? g Who in the target country is directly responsible for the human rights situation that we are trying to change? Are they prison officials, opposition groups, etc? g Who in these countries is indirectly responsible for human rights abuses? Are they politicians, prison authorities, etc? Strategic Campaigning 25 g Who in the target country could influence those responsible? Are they health professionals, the media, religious organizations, trade unions, etc? g Who in your country could persuade the influential people in the target country to act? Are they doctors, journalists, politicians, religious groups, etc? g How can you persuade the 26 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual

people or organizations in your country to put pressure on those with influence in the target country? What campaigning techniques

could you most effectively employ: lobbying public events, petitions, media work, writing letters, etc? It may not make sense to target public opinion in China because it is not clear how public opinion affects government policy on crime, nor whether public opinion is in favour or opposed to the death penalty. The need for specific country strategies Every country strategy is different. For example, AI condemns the death penalty in the USA as much as it does in China. It is equally committed to achieving abolition in both countries. In both countries government legislation allows the state to kill citizens. In both countries achieving abolition poses a major challenge for AI. Will the same strategy work in both countries? A campaign for abolition of the death penalty that does not recognize the differences between Chinese and US society will be unlikely to succeed in either country. The boxes on this page show just some of the differences. These need to be reflected in different international campaigning strategies.

For example, it may make sense to try and change public opinion in the USA on the death penalty as local politicians would then not win votes by promising to put more people to death than their political rivals. USA N Elected state government decides punishment options N Public opinion is thought to have a major influence on the death penalty N Trials are long and costly N Executions are increasing but still less than 100 annually N Few crimes are subject to the death penalty N AI and many other groups campaign against the death penalty N Race is believed to be a factor in verdicts and sentencing CHINA N Central government decrees punishments for different crimes N Public opinion is not thought to have a major influence on the death penalty N Trials are often summary and unfair N Thousands of people are executed annually N Many crimes are subject to the death penalty N No known organizations campaign against the death penalty N Race is not known to be a factor in verdicts and sentencing Possible objectives for

campaigns This section looks at some possible campaigning objectives for AI and whether they are long or short term, specific or general. N The release of all prisoners of conscience in a country This is a final objective in relation to a country with an AI mandate concern. At certain times, such as when a government has changed, it may be a short-term and final objective. N The release of specific prisoners of conscience As a short or more specific objective on the way to achieving the release of all prisoners of conscience, AI may decide to concentrate on particular individuals or groups of individuals. This is a tactic that worked in relation to Indonesia in the 1970s, and was used to highlight the cases of people such as Andrei Sakharov in the former Soviet Union and by the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa in relation to Nelson Mandela. N The reduction of sentences for certain prisoners This is rarely a stated external objective of AI, but may be an internal (or expected

rather than hoped for) objective. N Improvement in prison conditions This can be a final objective for prisoners, or an objective on the way to

the final objective: the release of a prisoner of conscience. N Change in legislation that would affect AI’s concerns This can be a final objective, but is more likely to have been identified as a step that can be taken towards achieving the final objective of ending a particular practice. It could therefore be the focus of a particular campaign. N Increase awareness of abuses This should never be a final objective. It may have been identified as an important step towards the final objective of ending abuses. As expressed, it is not specific and is very hard to measure. Its relationship to action that would provide evidence of To welcome or condemn? Case One To welcome or condemn? Case Two Government A announces a moratorium on the death penalty. Should AI welcome the decision as a positive step towards abolition or condemn it as a lost opportunity for abolition? AI has taken both positions at different times in the past. What factors do you think may have led to these different responses? What might be the

advantages and risks of responding in either way to such an announcement? N If AI welcomes the moratorium it risks being accused of retreating from its position of calling for complete abolition. A moratorium may not be the best decision the government could have made in the circumstances and strong criticism may make it go a bit further and announce abolition. N If AI condemns the moratorium it may be excluded from further debate with the government, and be seen as negative and unrealistic in refusing to acknowledge a step forward. The moratorium may have been the best decision in the circumstances and defining it as a negative step may mean missing the opportunity of using the momentum of the decision. AI hears reports of government soldiers being involved in a massacre and calls on Government B to launch an independent inquiry. Government B announces an independent inquiry but does not provide details of its composition or terms of reference. Should AI welcome the inquiry or condemn it? AI has taken both

positions in the past. What factors do you think may have led to these different responses? What might the advantages and risks be of responding in either way to such an announcement? Strategic Campaigning 27 moving towards ending violations is therefore difficult to establish. N Elicit a response from or dialogue with government authorities about AI’s concerns This is not a final objective, although it may be the objective of a specific campaign. The sort of response or dialogue wanted and why a response is important would need to be explained in the strategy. N Increase the debate within government circles about human rights violations This can be an important campaign objective, particularly when AI believes that there is controversy and opposition to the violations within government circles. It would need to have some form of measurement, such as comments by ministers or journalists, or a policy change. It is not a final objective. N A target government to start investigations into human rights violations

This may be identified as an important objective as evidence of a commitment N How AI reacts will open up or shut down further campaigning opportunities. 28 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual to end impunity - and the violations themselves. It is easy to measure and opens up further opportunities for campaigning. N Independent access to detainees at risk of torture This can be an important campaign objective. If respected, access is one of the major safeguards against torture and ill-treatment. It can be an important step towards ending torture. It is also measurable and specific. N Abolition of the death penalty This is a final objective, although it can also be a short-term one. Several new governments in recent years have made abolition of the death penalty one of their first acts. It is very measurable. A campaign objective may be to establish a moratorium on executions. N Reduction in the number of offences carrying the death penalty Some AI campaigning strategies have taken an incremental approach to

abolition of the death penalty on the basis that focusing efforts on total abolition would be unrealistic and ineffective. Abolition remains the longterm objective. Abolition in practice may be the mid-term objective, with restriction of the death penalty to aggravated murder the short-term objective. N Increase awareness of AI’s goals This should only be an objective if its relationship to some other action is clear - if a case can be made that it is a necessary step. Awareness is notoriously difficult to measure and for this to be a specific objective it would be necessary to measure awareness before and after the campaign, and to specify among whom awareness was to be raised. N Statement from home government on human rights situation in target country This is a specific objective that may be an important way of bringing pressure to bear. N Increase AI’s membership This can be a valid internal objective of AI’s campaigning, particularly if a lack of members has been identified as a

weakness. Specify how many new members are to be gained over what period. N Enhance AI’s impartial image AI’s image in the community may have been identified as a weakness that is adversely affecting the impact of its campaigning. In this case, enhancing AI’s image is a necessary step to achieving other objectives. N Increase participation in AI’s activities of a particular section of the community This may be an important objective in relation to either a specific country campaign or to AI’s campaigning more generally. "The greatest evil today is indifference. To know and not to act is a way of consenting to these injustices. The planet has become a very small place. What happens in other countries affects us." Elie Wiesel, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate

CHAPTER 2 CAMPAIGNING IN THE MODERN WORLD

The massive growth and changes in world trade, including in the field of military, security and police transfers, the integration of the world economy and the communications revolution

have transformed international relations. There are more links between more states than ever before. These changes have opened up opportunities and challenges for AI’s campaigning. This chapter looks at these new and exciting areas for AI’s work in the following three

sections: Contents Relations between Countries / 31 Military, Security and Police Links and Transfers / 39 Information Technology / 51 1 1 MODERN WORLD RELATIONS BETWEEN Intergovernmental organizations, such as the United Nations, are good starting points for gathering information about your target country and researching links between your own country and the target country © UN COUNTRIES The world has become a smaller place. States are more closely linked than ever before, through trade, international relations and modern communication systems. Finding those links and making the best use of them is an important part of AI’s work in the modern world. This section

looks at: N Relations between countries / 32 N Information about relations between countries / 32 N Links with the government in the target country / 33 N Links with society in the target country / 34 N Using the links / 37 32 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual approaches was prioritized by the 1995 ICM. There have also been movementwide policy discussions about how we can most effectively work for human rights in the context of the economic relations between governments. Many governments have policies which link human rights and economic relations with other countries. N Cultural relations In this area the development of AI’s work has been more sporadic. It has included outreach to religious communities by many Sections. There have also been a number of campaigning initiatives which have been linked to international sporting events, such as the Olympic Games. Relations between countries AI must take account of the international political environment in which we campaign. Usually, we have

some basic understanding about the broad nature of the relations (or lack of relations) between our own country and the country in which the human rights violations we wish to address are taking place.* Even when we do not consciously discuss such relations, they influence our planned actions. In trying to develop a more strategic approach to campaigning, discussion about the relations between countries is often helpful. Sometimes it is useful to have the discussion on the basis of existing knowledge. Sometimes it is worth finding out the details in a specific area. The important thing is to develop our capacity to use the information to make our campaigning more effective. There are a number of areas where Sections can choose to develop

specialist approaches: N Military relations In this area we have specific policies and action strategies on military, security and police (MSP) transfers (see next section). Some AI Sections have also developed specialist groups of military or former military people, police or former police who are AI members and are willing to use their professional skills or status in AI work. The development of this specialist capacity was prioritized by the 1995 International Council Meeting (ICM), AI’s supreme policy-making body which is held biennially. N Economic relations In this area some Sections have developed specialist groups, involving AI members with a background in the business world, to make approaches to companies and business people about how they can contribute to human rights (see Chapter 10). The further development of work on company Information about relations between countries In order that Sections can best analyse which links provide the best strategic opportunities, individual country

strategies provided by the IS should: N state which sectors of the government/society are most responsible for human rights violations and which are most likely to be in a position to influence the human rights situation; N state which international links have the most potential for influencing a human rights situation in a particular country. * AI often refers internally to these relations as military, economic and cultural relations (MEC). Sri Lanka and Turkey have both promoted themselves as tourist destinations. In both cases AI Sections have used this popular image and contrasted it with the grim reality of human rights violations. The UK Section mailed their supporters an envelope containing "holiday photographs from Turkey", which consisted of photographs of victims of human rights violations. Other Sections have produced brochures highlighting human rights violations and approached travel agents asking them to display these along with the travel brochures. This poster was produced

by AIUSA for a campaign against human rights violations in Sri Lanka and displayed on a roadside billboard. Campaign material displayed in places normally associated with commercial advertising and travel information can make the necessary link between the image of an attractive holiday destination and the reality of human rights violations. for cessation in very specific There is a single category of Fulfilling this potential is likely to circumstances. This is in the need a combination of AI’s campaigning case of military, security techniques, including outreach, or police transfers. lobbying, company approaches, Modern World/Relations between Countries 33 AI Sections are best placed to links between countries develop the knowledge and expertise where AI may take a position on the links between their society and of expressing concerns, the society of the target country, and the raising questions or calling human rights potential of these links. publicity work and letter-writing. ones? Have AI’s concerns been raised

during discussions on ODA programs? Is there an explicit human rights component to discussions? g Are there formal connections between your MSP agencies and those in the target country through international bodies or alliances? g How do these associations function? Are there MSP transfers between your country and the target country? g How much is known about the target government officials most directly responsible for human rights violations? Did any of the officials or politicians live, travel, study, train or serve in your country at any time? When, where and in whose company? Are there professors, business executives, foreign service officers past or present, journalists or others who could offer a first-hand view of the officials, what motivates them, who they think is important? g Does the government of the target country routinely send trade delegations, delegates to professional and cultural conferences and events, and other semi-official or unofficial emissaries to your country? And vice

versa? g Has the government hired public relations agents in your country? Who are they? Are they open to a meeting to discuss AI concerns? g Is there an embassy of the target country in your country? g Is there a "fixer" attached to the target country’s embassy in your country - someone who arranges invitations, receptions, travel for members of parliament or other important people in your country? How public are the activities of the "fixer", or how possible is it to monitor them? Links with the government in the target country The following questions may help you determine the links between your society and the government in the

target country: gQUESTIONS g Which international organizations are your government and the government of the target country members of? Do they belong to the UN, the UN Commission on Human Rights, the UN Security Council, regional organizations, the Non-Aligned Movement or trade associations? g What is the position of your foreign affairs ministry in relation to the country? Apologist? Adversary? Mixed? g Has the target country been the subject of parliamentary or government hearings in the past few years? In what connection and with what results? Who testified, and what link if any exists between the testimony and AI’s concerns? g Does your government belong to an aid consortium relevant to the target country? Such consortiums may provide an opportunity for raising or discussing AI’s concerns. g Does your government provide Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) to other countries? Which 34 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual g Does your government have a "special visitors" program through

which leading individuals from other societies can be invited? g Who in government and private institutions has a knowledge of, or special interest in, the country of concern? holdings with companies based in your country? Have any of them ever expressed public concern for human rights or been detained by former governments? g What is the volume of trade between the societies? In whose favour is the balance of trade? Is it growing or decreasing? What is the nature of the trade - services, manufactured goods, primary products? Are there forthcoming trade promotions? Is there contact through trade associations or regulatory organizations? Is either government actively involved in encouraging trade through incentives, seminars, bilateral contact? g Are trade unions powerful in the country? Are they officially represented in government? What is the government’s relationship with the International Labour Organisation (ILO)? Are the unions active on wider issues, outspoken, independent? What

are their internationally affiliated unions and umbrella groups? Are they members of international unions or federations which have affiliates in your country? Are there regular contacts between union members and officials in the two countries? g Is the media influential on government policy in the target country? Does the media ever publish reports of human rights violations by the government? Is it self-censored, government controlled, or free? Does it have correspondents based in your country? Is there an active foreign press corps there? Do media organizations from your country have correspondents based there? What is the level of ownership of television and radio? Do they receive international transmissions? g Is the government sensitive to its image in the international media? And to the media in your country? Why? What is the routine level of media interest in your country? When was the Links with society in the target country The following questions may help you determine the links between your

society and that of the target country: gQUESTIONS g What are the powerful economic, social and cultural influences on the government or non-governmental entity from within the society? g Is religion a powerful force in the country? Which religions and which government officials are most influential? Is there a connection between the religion/s and the religious organizations in your country? Are there any relevant events, visits or exchanges happening? g Are there a number of formal political parties competing for power? Do they have international links with other parties of a similar political system? Are they members of the Inter-Parliamentary Union? Do they have youth or women’s sections/departments that are linked with international federations? Do these have contact with organizations in your country? g Who are the most important business and industrial leaders in the country? Which of them has lived, studied or worked in your country? Who are their colleagues or associates

in your country? Are there links through trade or industry associations? Do any of them represent joint venture During an official trade promotion of India in Australia, AI members handed out letters to the Australian guests arriving at functions, providing information on one particular human rights case and asking them to raise the case with visiting Indian Government officials. An e-mail link with a school in an Indian city was part of the promotion. AI members used this to register Australians’ concern and begin a discussion over the case and other human rights violations perpetrated against Indian schoolchildren. An Australian theatre group, sponsored by the Australian Government, travelled to Jakarta as part of an Australian promotion in Indonesia. One member of the group was so concerned about human rights violations in East Timor that he staged a personal protest during the performance. His protest subsequently received significant media coverage in Australia. During campaigns on

countries in Africa and Latin America, AI Sections have used their societies’ interest in the music from these countries to interest people in the human rights situation. They have produced music tapes, held concerts and staged other events. Modern World/Relations between Countries 35 most recently increased media and public interest in the target country? What caused this? g Is there an active bar/legal association? Does it influence legislative reform? Does it take a stand on human rights violations? Is it a member of regional/worldwide professional associations? Did leading professionals train or practice in your society? Are there historical links between the professions? Are there visiting or exchange programs between the professions in your society? g Do other professional associations have influence? How are academics and internationally known writers, scholars, doctors, specialists and laureates regarded? Are there institutional or organizational links between your society and the target

country in these areas? Are there exchange programs for academics/students? Are there institutions about which the government seems to take a "hands-off" policy? g What are the communications links between the societies? In particular, is mail delivered, is it monitored or otherwise interfered with? Is it necessary for people to pay bribes for mail delivery? Is franked mail preferable to stamped (in some countries letters are stolen for the resale value of the foreign stamps)? Is registered mail delivered more reliably

Aid, development assistance, trade and conditionality: AI’s position As with sanctions or boycotts AI does not oppose or support the attaching of human rights conditions to trade, aid or development assistance. The debate continues through the human rights movement on the "issue of conditionality". On the one hand "conditionality" is clearly one of the most important levers of influence that governments possess and a visible way of demonstrating concern. On the other it tends to be effective because of imbalances of power. It can be used in the interests of maintaining that imbalance and may have an adverse impact on the economic, social and cultural rights of many people. For these reasons it can place those supporting sanctions and boycotts in opposition to the views of the domestic human rights movement. AI does not formally engage in this debate. AI’s position most simply expressed is that it is the responsibility of all aid bodies, development organizations and governments to look at how their policies and

practices are affecting and contributing to all human rights. than regular mail? Is the telephone system functioning throughout the country? Are international calls monitored? What languages will operators understand? Is it possible to obtain telephone numbers through directory information? Are fax machines widely used in government and business? Does e-mail offer opportunities for reaching important audiences? g Do human rights assemblies, legal aid institutes and other domestic human rights groups exist legally? Are their leaders free to travel? Are there ways to strengthen the domestic human rights lobby? (This needs to be discussed with the IS, which is in touch with all such bodies.) g Is there an expatriate/exile community from the target country resident in your country? What is its relationship with the home country? Does it provide the basis of a solidarity movement for opposition groups in the home country? Does it contribute to any human rights movements there? Is it associated with (armed) opposition

groups? Does it have its own media? Is it influential with sections of government or the society in the home country? g What are the sporting links between your societies? Do your societies have the same national sports? Are sports stars in your society famous in that society? Are they seen as "role 36 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual © RHODRI JONES/ PANOS PICTURES Targeting investors in China "Should businesses and their shareholders be concerned about violations of human rights in the countries in which they work? Such a question is likely to receive an equivocal or evasive answer, if it receives an answer at all. But it is a question which in future is likely to be asked with increasing insistence." These words, by Chairman of the Business Group of AIUK Sir Geoffrey Chandler, opened an article entitled "Business and Human Rights", a paper included in the investors pack prepared for the campaign on China. During the China campaign, AI produced an information pack aimed at Sections

who were approaching businesses and individuals investing in China. It included opinion pieces, fact sheets, suggested actions and summarized AI’s policy on approaches to business sectors. Modern World/Relations between Countries 37 models" in either society? Are there major sporting contacts/events scheduled over the next year? Will these be attracting major media coverage in both societies? g What are the cultural links between your societies? Are musical, literature or theatrical traditions shared? Are popular music stars in your society famous/attract publicity in the target country? Are musical or theatrical tours planned between the societies? g What are the links between your academic institutions and those in the target country? Are they linked through the Internet and e-mail? Are there exchange programs ? g Are there city/region links or twinning arrangements between the two societies? Do these include exchanges of officials, students, teachers and others on official visits

that may provide opportunities for building dialogue? g Is there tourism between your societies? Is tourism a major source of revenue for the other society? What proportion of this tourism does your society represent? Does this raise opportunities for spreading human rights information?

Sanctions and boycotts: AI’s position g What is the popular perception in your society/media of the other society? Does this represent an obstacle to generating the necessary human rights action? g Is there an AI Section in the country? AI does not call for, oppose or support restrictions on links between societies. Arguments rage and will continue to rage about the effectiveness and impact of sanctions or boycotts in different circumstances. AI avoids these arguments in relation to the many different countries where it has concerns. It concentrates on asserting the responsibility of all involved to look at how they may most effectively contribute to bringing about improvements in human rights. In international campaigning, sanctions and boycotts had their highest profile and most sustained focus in the international campaign to end apartheid in South Africa. In this case the demands for sanctions and boycotts originated from and were pursued by South African organizations and political movements that were

seen as representative of South African opinion. In some circumstances, particularly where there is a public momentum, not supporting calls for sanctions can be seen as opposing sanctions and care often needs to be taken to avoid giving this impression. AI does oppose the transfer of military, security and police training and materials that can reasonably be assumed to contribute to human rights violations. AI also opposes the trade in organs of executed persons. Using the links Which of these links will be most useful, and how they can be used creatively, will change from country to country and over time. Some illustrative examples are included in this manual to show how links have been used in the past. AI has policies on how these links may be used in its campaigning for human rights, and it is important to know these and to keep up to date with the changes (policy is decided at ICMs). Developing knowledge about the country and society you wish to influence is vital to knowing which links

offer the best opportunities and when. N Some governments seeking closer economic relationships with your country or to join a particular economic or political bloc or organization can be very sensitive to the raising of concerns about their human rights record. This might make them susceptible to pressure. 38 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual The Fax Revolution Fax machines in Malawi played such an important role in the political change that led to the release of many long-serving prisoners of conscience and the end of oneparty rule that the change was dubbed "The Fax Revolution". To beat strict controls on freedom of expression and restrictions on access to information, news was sent into the country by fax and then copied and distributed within the country. N A presidential, trade or cultural visit can present many opportunities for campaigning. They provide a focus and many others will also be working to generate interest and media coverage - albeit with a different angle. N Some governments actively

promote a particular image of their country to build tourism. Again, this can make them particularly sensitive to the different images conjured up by knowledge of their human rights record. It can be easier to use this existing awareness of a country as a hook to gain interest and shift perceptions than to create entirely new perceptions. N As links between countries grow, so they extend beyond the specialized area of foreign affairs ministries. A close relationship between governments may involve the education, industry and trade, defence, finance and other departments of governments. This can mean that while the foreign affairs ministry has positive policies, they are not reflected in the behaviour or policies of other departments, or human rights have remained compartmentalized. Each department should be encouraged to have a human rights strategy. N Building the profile of particular human rights activists by inviting them on a speaking tour, or persuading others to invite them, can help to build

connections between human rights activists in both countries and provide greater personal protection to the individuals in their work. N Encouraging contact between different sectors of your society and their counterparts in another society around human rights issues can help to build lasting relationships and a commitment to take action. It can also increase knowledge and expertise on what would be the best forms of action to take. The international city and community twinning movement has grown rapidly in recent years, leading to increased contact between schools, mayors, local businesses and cultural organizations across many societies. N At least one Section has persuaded a parliamentary committee to institute an annual review of their government’s record on human rights internationally. This review includes taking public and private submissions from concerned individuals and organizations. 1

Left to right: Derek Evans, Deputy Secretary General of AI; Tony Lloyd, UK Minister of State responsible for arms transfers; and Dr Oscar Arias, Nobel Peace Laureate and former President of Costa Rica, launching the International Code of Conduct on Arms Transfers in London, 9 June 1997 © STEFAN BONESS MODERN WORLD MILITARY, SECURITY AND POLICE LINKS AND TRANSFERS Around the world military, security and police (MSP) personnel are committing human rights violations. The MSP training, equipment, technology and personnel they receive from other countries (transfers) may facilitate these violations - and the supplying country might be yours. Finding out about these MSP transfers, including the logistical and financial support such transfers require, and explaining how such transfers may contribute to the human rights violations in AI's mandate, can offer important campaigning opportunities for AI and help stop

violations. This section looks at: N Introduction to MSP transfers / 40 N Investigating MSP transfers / 42 N Using the information / 45 N Approaching companies about MSP transfers / 46 N Transfers of MSP training and expertise / 47 N The international dimension / 49 N Measuring our impact on MSP transfers / 50 40 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual from target countries in which violations are occurring and may not receive much data about the country where you are based. Before starting any action on MSP transfers, you must be clear on three issues. N Clarify the MSP personnel committing abuses and their links to your country M To decide which MSP transfers might present the best strategic opportunities for campaigning against human rights abuses, AI needs reliable information on the human rights abusers in question and on the types of foreign MSP equipment, technology, training and personnel that are used in the country. Much of this information may already be available at the IS or be

easily obtained by a research team. M To gauge the quality of the information we have about MSP perpetrators, use the questions outlined in Chapter 10 (Outreach/Military and Law Enforcement Officers). These questions may help establish which MSP personnel are committing human rights violations, who within the country can influence those responsible, and whether the military, security or police are involved in economic activity. Find out whether there have been any direct or indirect links in the past between such personnel and the government, army, police or companies in your country. N Clarify current MSP transfers which may contribute to human rights violations M Investigating MSP transfers is Introduction to MSP transfers AI has been developing its work on military, security and police (MSP) transfers since 1983. MSP transfers include the trade or free provision by governments or companies of equipment, personnel, training or technology. The purpose of AI’s work on MSP

transfers is to: N prevent transfers that can reasonably be assumed to contribute to human rights abuses; N identify international involvement which contributes to human rights abuses and strengthen pressure for international action to prevent such abuses; N apply pressure directly on those military, security or police forces responsible for committing human rights abuses. Our overall aim is to achieve effective international monitoring, regulation and control of MSP transfers. This will require the commitment of all governments and there is therefore a potential role for all AI Sections. Investigating the current types and quantities of MSP transfers from your country is often a time-consuming and difficult task. AI Sections have the lead responsibility for collecting MSP transfer data from their own country, provided this is not against the law or a security risk. Research teams at the IS usually concentrate on information Combating atrocities In late 1996 in the east of former Zaire, the discovery of military procurement

documents provided sickening evidence to confirm AI's 1995 report stating that in the midst of the genocide in Rwanda in 1994, Rwandese armed forces responsible for mass killings were supplied weapons and ammunition - through former Zaire - from Albania and Israel, secretly flown in by traders from the UK and Nigeria. These traders contributed to the genocide, but to date none has faced prosecution. As a result of campaigning by AI and other NGOs, the UN established an International Commission of Inquiry which found that arms had been transferred to the perpetrators of the genocide via former Zaire. Most governments will not agree to arms control unless other governments do so as well. It is important to link any action to our campaign for international controls. Modern World/MSP Links and Transfers 41 Examples of AI action on MSP transfers N AI publicized that in 1996 Indonesian security forces used military vehicles against demonstrators. The USA banned exports of light weapons and armoured

vehicles to Indonesia, but the German and UK governments readily offered new contracts to supply light tanks, armoured vehicles, water cannon and lethal combat training. N AI obtained US Government documents in November 1995 which showed that US weapons exported to Colombia to fight drug-trafficking actually went to Colombian army units responsible for deliberate and arbitrary killings of civilians and other grave human rights violations. Campaigning by AI and other NGOs led to such aid being suspended.

N In 1997 AI published a report Arming the Torturers: Electro-Shock Torture and the Spread of Stun Technology, which achieved widespread worldwide media publicity. Sections raised AI's concerns about the use of electro-shock stun guns, batons, shields and belts for torture and ill-treatment with their governments and the responsibility of several supply companies. This helped focus international attention not only on the weapons, but also on particular cases of torture and ill-treatment, on the conduct of law enforcement personnel, and on the efforts of governments to provide human rights protection through proper export control of security equipment. difficult because relevant information is often clouded in official state secrecy, obscured by export or technical classifications, denied by companies on the basis of "commercial confidentiality" or even falsified by people wishing to discredit someone else. However, with patience and attention to detail, it is often possible to piece together important data

on MSP transfers. Apart from letterwriting, one effective method is to get members of parliament, journalists or others to ask detailed questions about MSP transfers. Another effective method is to keep asking questions until you have some answers. M If you can establish reliable information about MSP transfers sent from your country, immediately alert the relevant IS research team and your Section's country or RAN coordinator. Check with them and in AI publications to see if any of these MSP transfers are likely to contribute to human rights violations within AI's mandate. N Clarify legislation and regulations on MSP transfers M Do not start any public action on MSP transfers without first knowing about your country's basic laws and regulations on MSP transfers. This can be a complex subject and you may find another non-governmental organization (NGO) or lawyer who can help you. At a minimum, grasp the essentials before undertaking any public action. Most countries have laws and regulations concerning MSP transfers,

especially where these may be deemed to be lethal. Some laws cover the domestic possession and sale of such equipment as well as transfers abroad. Others deal with foreign trade. There are laws and regulations covering private business as well as government transfers, but these may have important loopholes which arms dealers can exploit. Lists of military and security products which are prohibited or considered very sensitive or just subject to normal controls can be checked, but these sometimes change, so the lists may be included as an annex to the main law. Other laws may deal with the conduct and training of MSP personnel in the home country, and these laws may affect foreign training by the home country's MSP personnel. Try to map out all the laws and regulations that govern the full range of MSP transfers, 42 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual concentrating on the types of transfer that may contribute to human rights violations. Make note of which government ministers or officials can

authorize or review such transfers, and who reports on them. M It is vital to find out if any MSP laws and regulations contain mechanisms included for human rights protection. The following questions may help

you: gQUESTIONS g Is there a law requiring the sending government to first establish that a proposed MSP transfer will not contribute to human rights violations in the receiving country? g Does the legislation require parliamentary oversight of this provision? g Is there a system of formal review or independent scrutiny? g Are monitoring mechanisms in place to allow officials to check whether the end-use of MSP transfers may result in human rights violations? g Are there legal guarantees in the end-user certificates so that if any MSP transfer is misused for human rights violations, further transfers of the same type of equipment will be stopped along with related spare parts, servicing and training? g Are there enough officials, for example in customs and excise and border control, to implement the law properly? All these questions need to be explored in written exchanges with the government authorities until satisfactory answers are provided. Investigating MSP transfers Despite official secrecy and other

barriers, there are many ways of finding out about MSP transfers. The sources of

information include: N Government information provided to the public (ministerial speeches, annual reports to the UN and other intergovernmental organizations, freedom of information searches, patents); information given to members of parliament; and information "leaked" to journalists and NGOs by officials. The advantage of this information is that it is "official". Even if it is found to be wrong, the onus is on the government to correct it. The disadvantage is that the information may be misleading and couched in obscure categories, with vital data missing. N Company product and services information listed in major directories and periodicals. These include Janes Defence Weekly, Janes International Defence Review, the weekly Defence News, Law Enforcement Product News, Police and Security News. Also useful are company advertisements, brochures and other promotional literature and events, especially exhibitions. N Company address and ownership details listed in telephone and trade

directories, company registers (for example, Kompass Directories on different countries, Thomas Register, Who Owns Whom ), microfiche sources (company registrar offices), CD Rom (Medline, Financial Times annual reports service, Kompass, Thomas Register), computer on-line databases (Datastar, Dialog-Piers, STN International, Echo, Echo, Corporate Critic) and sites on the World Wide Web (Multinational Monitor, Namebase, Guardian Online and a growing number of other newspaper services). The danger here is having too much irrelevant information. AI Spain identified government secrecy as the main obstacle to effective monitoring and control of MSP transfers.Together with Greenpeace, Médecins sans Frontièresand the development NGO Indermon, they developed a highly successful campaign under the slogan "Killing Secrets". In spite of initial opposition, in March 1997 the Spanish Congress of Deputies unanimously approved a motion on transparency and control of the arms trade. Modern World/MSP Links and Transfers 43

N Human rights information from AI and other reputable human rights and humanitarian organizations. N Specialist arms institutes and databases, which publish regular reports and sometimes can answer particular queries. A few specializing in MSP transfer information are listed in Appendix II. These can be invaluable, but many such organizations tend not to relate their information to human rights violations, and tend to collect most of their transfer data on large weapons systems. They may also have difficulty in dealing with many outside requests. N Field reports from direct witnesses willing to speak out, such as religious figures, journalists, lawyers, medical personnel, other NGOs, business people, trade unionists, transport and other local officials, or even sometimes local MSP officials or visiting MSP personnel. Summary of AI's policy on MSP transfers N No position on arms embargoes or sanctions AI neither supports nor opposes sanctions against governments which are guilty of human rights violations, and takes no position on punitive measures of any kind,

such as sanctions or boycotts. N Opposition to a MSP transfer AI may oppose MSP transfers (of equipment, personnel, training or technology), including proven financial or logistical support for such transfers, to governments and NGEs that can reasonably be assumed to contribute to human rights violations within AI's mandate. N Calls for cessation A "call for a cessation" of an MSP transfer requires the mutual agreement of the IS and Section who can make this decision when one of the following three conditions

can be verified: Mthe sole practical use for the MSP transfer is to commit human rights violations within AI's mandate; Mthe transfer of the type/class of equipment has been shown in practice to contribute to such violations in the receiving country; or Mthe transfers support those specific military, paramilitary or security units which are significantly responsible for such violations and which AI would press to be disbanded. N Searching questions When the conditions necessary to call for a cessation cannot be verified, AI may ask "searching questions" of the supplier government and companies in their home countries about the use to which intended MSP transfers will be put by the receiving country. Such questions could draw attention to the danger of the MSP transfer being used in the receiving country for the violation of human rights within AI's mandate, but should contain no demand, explicit or implicit, that the transfer be stopped. Where appropriate, such actions could be publicized. These questions should be

approved by the board or executive of the Section concerned after prior consultation with the IS.

N MSP legislation: onus on the sender All AI Sections should call for legislation and regulations which prohibit MSP transfers from taking place unless it can be reasonably demonstrated that such transfers will not contribute to human rights violations within AI's mandate. Such laws usually address issues broader than AI's human rights concerns. 44 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Searching questions Searching questions raised with the supplying government or company must always warn of the danger of sending the particular MSP transfers. They should also seek

precautionary action by the authorities such as: N conducting a human rights impact study before any decision on MSP transfers is reached; N carrying out on-site monitoring of the use of MSP transfers; N ensuring that human rights monitors have access to the affected areas; Collating and analysing the information To start with, prioritize certain countries, types of equipment and types of companies and decide a limited period which you want to cover. Whether you use old fashioned index cards, document files and filing cabinets, or computer database software, there is no escaping the need for rigorous categorization, dating and cross-referencing, as well as updating as best you can. Always err on the side of caution when drawing conclusions from such data. Double check the consistency of the evidence and the credibility of the sources. Always take extreme care when analysing the information. Each AI Section's MSP group or cogroup should try to pool its MSP transfer data so that collation and crosschecking

are easier. Each Section should also share what it considers to be the most significant data with the MSP coordinator and the relevant country researchers in the IS so that important leads can be followed up by the IS. N providing legal guarantees in all end-use certificates that any MSP transfers (not only equipment, but also spare parts, maintenance and training contracts and so on) will be immediately cancelled if they are misused for serious human rights violations. human rights violations. It is therefore vital that AI plays a leading role in trying to secure international and national controls on such equipment. Most people think of guns and ammunition when the term "arms" is used. And they think of killings or injuries as the main tragic consequence. But in AI's experience, there are several other types of weapon that are commonly used in human rights violations and in breaches of humanitarian law. There are also many violations apart from killings carried out with such weapons,

including torture and other illtreatment, and arbitrary arrests. The following categories might prove

helpful: N Security or "crime control" equipment M torture and death penalty equipment (AI calls for a complete ban of such equipment) M electro-shock weapons (guns, batons, shields and belts) M "non-lethal" weapons and riot control equipment (tear-gas, plastic and rubber bullets, etc.) N Small arms or light weapons M automatic handguns and pistols M machine-guns and submachine- guns M sniper rifles, automatic rifles and semi-automatic rifles M hand grenades M landmines, especially antipersonnel mines Types of MSP transfers Many human rights violations involve the use of small arms, paramilitary equipment and security technologies. Yet the international transfer of such equipment is usually not disclosed by governments even though the proliferation of such weapons can fuel armed conflicts and internal disturbances resulting in mass Modern World/MSP Links and Transfers 45 M unusual or exploding ammunition M mortars, bazookas, and shoulder-fired/hand-held rockets and missiles N Larger arms and logistical military

equipment M armoured vehicles, especially armoured patrol cars and armoured personnel carriers M military helicopters and other military transport and ground attack aircraft M artillery systems, tanks, rocket launch vehicles M military communications equipment, and surveillance equipment These weapons also depend upon the transfer of expertise, knowledge and skill in the use of such equipment. Such MSP training can therefore also help facilitate human rights violations, as can the financial flows and the provision of transport for such transfers. AI has found that medical or other "research" can aid the commission of torture or carrying out the death penalty. It is therefore important to try to focus on these types of MSP transfers and the logistical support used for them, and not to gather information about every type of MSP transfer. Main principles to include in legislation on MSP All legislation and regulations should prohibit MSP transfers from taking place unless it can be reasonably demonstrated that such transfers will not contribute to

human rights violations within AI's mandate. Such laws usually address issues broader than AI's human rights concerns, but AI can support or oppose provisions

in principle according to the following criteria: N human rights in the intended receiving country must be taken into consideration prior to any decision to approve an MSP transfer; N effective channels for receiving human rights information from NGOs are established; N reports are issued on the human rights record of governments and, where applicable, armed opposition groups in all receiving countries; N the sender should take responsibility for the use of MSP transfers in practice (including regular monitoring of end-user certificates); N prohibit the transfer of any MSP equipment, personnel, training or technology, as well as logistical and financial support, unless it can be reasonably demonstrated that such transfers will not contribute to human rights violations; Using the information If you have credible evidence of a clear link between MSP transfers from your country and such transfers being used for human rights abuses, you should refer this to your Section's MSP coordinator and to the relevant board

member in your Section. They will ask the IS whether to call for a cessation of such MSP transfers. The IS will check the evidence and see how this fits into AI's existing strategy on that country before reaching a decision on whether and how best such a call for cessation can be made. It is likely that a call for cessation will also be relevant to other AI Sections in potential supplying countries, so international coordination will be required. If the IS has sufficient evidence to call for a cessation of MSP transfers to a particular country, a request for such a call may then be referred by the IS to a N legal provisions are precise and concrete, avoiding ambiguities; N the legislature is notified of all information necessary to enable it to exercise proper control over the implementation of the law; N regular and comprehensive reports, including of small arms transfers, are made for inclusion in the UN Register of Conventional Arms. 46 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Section for consideration by its MSP

coordinator and the Section's board. If AI has no Section in that country, the IS will take the decision. Once calls for cessation have been included in a campaigning strategy on a particular country, these can be carried out using any or all of AI's campaigning techniques as appropriate. If a Section or the IS has evidence which is not conclusive but is strong enough to suspect that particular MSP transfers might contribute to human rights violations in AI's mandate, then warning signals should be issued to the sending government and the sending company, and possibly to the general public. These warnings should also take the form of searching questions. Such questions should focus on how the intended MSP transfers will be used and aim to make those responsible for sending the transfers answerable for their possible misuse. Sometimes these questions will not be public (for instance, in letters to the government and the company). But if the general public and parliament of the sending

country need to be alerted to a very real danger that MSP transfers will be used to facilitate violations, then the questions need to be publicized. This will increase international pressure on the receiving government. Searching questions can be raised through media releases, public statements or external reports. Sympathetic journalists, members of parliament and NGOs can also be asked to raise the questions. Approaching companies about MSP transfers Most representations of AI concerns about MSP transfers are made to government authorities, but there are times when AI Sections need to make approaches to companies as well. In these instances, the AI guidelines on company approaches should be followed and the Section's co-group on company approaches should be informed in advance. Particular care needs to be taken when you identify a company as having been involved in MSP transfers which contribute to human rights violations. If you make unsubstantiated allegations, the company may suffer

loss of earnings and take legal action against you. Therefore, do not accuse companies unless there is a particular need to do so in order to protect human rights and you are absolutely sure of your evidence. It may be wiser to pose tough searching questions to the company, or to keep looking for evidence. If you do make an approach to a

company, then follow these steps: A Chadian soldier stands outside a military camp in N’Djamena which is frequently used as a detention centre. Foreign governments, including those of China, France and the USA, have armed and trained the security forces of Chad. © REUTERS/POPPERFOTO Questions to Shell After human rights violations in Nigeria increased, AI Sections put searching questions to the Shell Group of companies, which has influence in the country. The questions

included: "If Shell has been negotiating for the import of weaponry or non-lethal equipment for use by the Nigerian police, what precautions has Shell taken to ensure that such equipment is not used to violate human rights? Will Shell make public the rules of engagement it developed for police engaged in oilfield operations? Will Shell consider trying to help promote a range of practical measures such as improving training programs for Nigerian police, prison officers and military?" Shell eventually responded positively and provided significant information on all these questions. N Do not have "off the record" exchanges or ask for money or sponsorship from the company. Modern World/MSP Links and Transfers 47 N Read the AI policy guidelines on company approaches and discuss your approach with the relevant coordinator in your Section. N Put your concerns (preferably as questions) about MSP transfers in writing to the manager, stating clearly that you are an AI member and outlining AI's policy on impartiality and

independence, as well as AI's policy on MSP transfers and MEC relations. Always ask about the company's code of practice regarding human rights. N Do not assume that because a company sends MSP transfers to a particular country where human rights abuses are common that this is conclusive proof that particular transfers are actually being used for human rights abuses. Rather, use this as an opportunity to warn of the danger of sending such transfers, and ask for specific information about the contracts, safeguards, interlinked companies, training, maintenance, etc. N Consult your MSP coordinator and co-group about your information before proceeding with any action. Check with the IS research team about the human rights information you wish to cite. Always link any such action to approaches to your government. The advice of a lawyer may also be wise. N Keep records of all exchanges with the company and other relevant data on the company. how the MSP transfers will be used; Mseek assurances as to whether

the sending government or company is meeting its obligations to ensure that such transfers cannot reasonably be assumed to be contributing to human rights violations. These warning-type questions can be made public, and this is often the first step to mobilizing public pressure around AI's concerns, as well as provoking media interest. Such questioning is normally part of a series of exchanges with the authorities and the company, and so the path of questioning needs to be thought about in advance. Examples of such interconnected questions to government officials responsible for a

bilateral MSP aid program are as follows: Searching questions Where AI has some evidence to suspect that MSP transfers may contribute to human rights violations, the first action is to ask searching questions to elicit more information and to warn of the danger of permitting MSP transfers to a particular recipient. Always design

questions to: Melicit further information about gQUESTIONS g How much and what kind of military, police and security aid and training does your government provide to the government forces of the country where human rights violations are committed? g Is the aid and training directed at particular parts of the military or police? g Does the aid and trade include a human rights component? Does it include security equipment and training? g Are human rights conditions placed on this military or police aid? g How is the human rights impact evaluated? g What is the level and nature of bilateral contact and exchanges between military and police in both countries? Are there joint exercises, or exchanges at military and police staff colleges? g Is there joint participation in international peace-keeping missions, seminars or conferences? 48 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual violations. Governments of foreign military trainers have been fairly unwilling to disclose full details of the training and

how it relates to human rights. For example, the US Government tried to promote its "expanded" International Military Education and Training (IMET) as "human rights friendly", and AI has begun a discussion with the government about this. However, the information received so far is not satisfactory. The same is true of the UK's MSP training programs for foreign personnel, which affect over a hundred other countries. One way AI can make "reasonable assumptions" about the effect on human rights of any transfers of skills, knowledge and expertise to MSP personnel is to seek answers to the

following types of questions: Transfers of MSP training and expertise Transfers of skills, knowledge and expertise to foreign MSP personnel are a growing reality and can be crucial in contributing to further human rights abuses or in helping prevent such abuses. AI can campaign to ensure that human rights are an integral part of any training provided to, or conducted with, foreign military, security and police forces. The increased use of private companies in security and even military roles, as well as the increase in multinational forces in international peacekeeping missions, has brought a new dimension to this issue. The basis of AI's position on MSP

training is simple: it should not contribute to serious human rights violations. We must always point out that the training of military and law enforcement personnel should be the responsibility of the governmental authorities, and that human rights training cannot be meaningful or effective without the establishment of proper systems of accountability. AI takes no part in the drafting of human rights training programs for MSP personnel from countries where human rights within AI's mandate are systematically and persistently violated. However, AI can try to help clarify how international human rights instruments should routinely be part of the training of all MSP personnel. It can be difficult to judge how far particular MSP training is a necessary contributing factor in human rights Examples of those questioned N On Indonesia and East Timor, AI Sections fielded searching questions publicly in statements and open letters about the use of Spanish military transport aircraft, as well as UK and US jet fighters and military training. The questions sought information about

access to human rights monitors in outlying areas of Indonesia and East Timor. N On Chad, searching questions were asked publicly in AI reports about the use by Chadian armed forces of US, French, Dutch and Chinese arms and military training. gQUESTIONS g Is there a serious pattern of human rights violations such that any MSP training may first require a program of legal reform in accordance with international standards, as well as the disbandment of certain types of security force units which are significantly responsible for committing violations? g Have any candidates selected for the military training been responsible for human rights violations and, if so, what action has been taken to make them accountable? (AI's position is that systems of MSP training and accountability have to go hand in hand.) N On the USA, the US Section asked searching questions regarding the human rights impact of the annual US government military assistance program. These were published as part of an annual report by the Section. This report is sent to many officials

involved in Congress and relevant departments of state, as well as to other NGOs. AI Sections in Europe and the USA publicly questioned the transfer of attack helicopters, fighter jets and artillery by the US Government to Israel following atrocities committed by the Israeli armed forces in Lebanon using such equipment during Operation Grapes of Wrath. Questions took the following

form: "Were US weapons used in Operation Grapes of Wrath? If so, please identify them. Were US weapons used in incidents where civilians were killed or injured? Please identify these incidents and the weapons involved." Significantly, the US Government took the unusual step of refusing to reply to AI's questions. Members of a Colombian army counterinsurgency unit. AI members in the USA have campaigned to prevent military aid being supplied to the Colombian forces without adequate controls. © ASCODAS Modern World/MSP Links and Transfers 49 g What human rights expertise do the trainers have? What evidence is there that the trainers themselves are able to teach practical exercises based upon international human rights law and standards, and not just aspects of humanitarian law? g What is the human rights content of the MSP course curricula? Does it include rigorous training exercises based upon international human rights standards? Are the same trainees being subject to other parallel

courses and, if so, what is the human rights content of these courses? g Is the institutional environment where the MSP training takes place conducive to promoting human rights? What other types of people and training courses take place there, what other materials are available to trainees, what are the extra-curricula activities and what is the overall institutional culture? g What procedures are in place to monitor the human rights impact of the MSP training, especially in relation to the conduct of the trainees once they put their training in practice? Each of the above questions could be turned into a statement of principle should this be necessary. Once you have obtained answers to the questions, you will have to assess whether AI may oppose the training altogether, expose certain aspects of it, or simply encourage further monitoring of it with other NGOs. A basic consideration will be whether the training includes lethal weapons training and the use of force because such knowledge can easily be

misused. A high standard of evidence that such training will not be misused for human rights violations will be required. The international dimension Governments which recognize the need for more effective control of MSP transfers state that where such transfers are stopped in order to protect human rights, it often provides an unfair market opportunity for commercial competitors. In other words, the governments themselves recognize the need for multilateral controls of MSP transfers and that bold unilateral actions may not prevent human rights violators obtaining MSP goods and services on the global market. AI activists involved in work on MSP transfers are thus increasingly making efforts to link demands for effective controls on MSP transfers at the national level to appeals for new initiatives by governments to establish international controls. Most MSP actions now include reference to governments implementing their existing commitments to human rights protection in the UN, the Organization

for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the European Union (EU) and other intergovernmental organization (IGO) agreements, such as the Wassenaar Arrangement of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and other states, including the Russian Federation. In the context of their lobbying 50 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual work, AI Sections have also called on governments to give fuller and more precise descriptions of the arms transfers in the UN Register. At the level of regional IGOs, some AI Sections in Western Europe began in 1995 to lobby home governments and their EU members of parliament to support the implementation of provisions contained in a "Code of Conduct" which was developed by several NGOs (including AI). By 1996 this "EU Code" was endorsed by over 600 NGOs and many prominent individuals. AI also submitted a report on arms control and human rights to EU governments as part of the Maastricht Treaty review process. It included reference to the need for arms control in terms of

human rights in submissions to the Asia Pacific Economic Summit and to the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The most developed set of principles for the international control of conventional arms and paramilitary equipment and training was launched in May 1997 by Dr Oscar Arias and other Nobel Peace Laureates, including AI. It is hoped that other Nobel Peace Laureates will help build a worldwide campaign over the next few years to have the Code considered in the UN and by national governments as a basis for new laws. The principles embodied in the Code can easily be used by AI Sections and include considerable overlap with AI's mandate and with AI's policy on MSP transfers. Discussions have begun with some diplomats, government officials and other NGOs to support this initiative, as well as with other international bodies. The Code is being translated into different languages. purposes set out at the beginning of this section, we can ask how any AI action

may: N stop or remedy individual violations or abuses in receiving countries; N promote better conduct and preventive measures; N develop the capacity of AI and the human rights movement. Our MSP work can obviously be focused at all three levels, but it is at the second level that the key results are measured. Any evaluation of our progress should be assessed primarily in terms of specific end-results defined to

measure: M public opinion and awareness of the effects on human rights of MSP transfers; M new legislation, government policies or regulations affecting MSP transfers; M standards of human rights education and training for foreign MSP personnel. It is also important to seek to measure how well we have used the lever of our work on MSP transfers to more broadly press for action on a human rights situation. It is more difficult to measure what direct impact MSP work has in the target country. Achieving concrete results in these areas clearly requires a long-term program of work on MSP transfers. For AI to be effective, the right message must be delivered by the most appropriate messengers to the most powerful and influential targets. This requires the organization to develop a range of work on MSP transfers where such transfers relate to human rights within AI's mandate. The work requires a degree of specialization and international coordination to succeed, and is interlinked to the development

of AI's home government and IGO lobbying, to its media work, and to its outreach to military, police, business and financial actors. Measuring our impact on MSP transfers It is not simple to measure the effectiveness of AI's MSP work. There are quantitative and qualitative as well as short- and longer-term considerations. With regard to the AI reports by the UK and USA Sections on military, security and police transfers MODERN WORLD INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Information pours around the world instantly. News about human rights violations can reach an enormous audience in seconds. Human rights activists around the world can be linked by new technology. Understanding and using this fastdeveloping means of communication is vital to

AI’s work. This section looks at: N Electronic communications / 52 The Internet / 52 N Online research / 53 N Campaigning and action / 54 N Helping the movement work together / 55 1 52 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual attractive and interactive form. It is also relatively cheap to set up. One of its many advantages is that distance is largely irrelevant. Connecting to a computer in your town is just as easy and costs the same as connecting to one on the other side of the world. The main disadvantage of the Internet is that only some people have access to it in the wealthiest nations, and almost no one can use it in the poorest countries. As with other campaigning materials, it is important to have a specific purpose and target audience in mind before embarking on an Internet campaign. If you do set up a website, there are some useful tips to refer to. Electronic communications Electronic communications (electronic mail, bulletin boards, the Internet, etc) can be extremely useful to AI’s work. It

is an area of work that is changing and developing rapidly - as is the Internet itself. The examples of national and local work cited here are intended to be illustrative, not comprehensive. Electronic communications can

be used in a wide variety of ways: N Detailed research on countries, themes, corporations, IGO instruments, what other NGOs are doing, and even specific cases can be done through the Internet to help prepare for a campaign. N Putting campaign materials on the Internet can help to publicize the campaign, encourage activism, distribute materials to people who might otherwise not have access to them, and raise general human rights awareness. N Action appeals can be put on the Internet to generate a worldwide response and get people interested in joining AI. N Special fundraising appeals can be issued over the Internet. N Consultation networks and discussion groups can be set up inside and outside AI to generate and discuss ideas, provide feedback, and keep campaigners and activists in touch throughout the campaign. Several countries already have committed volunteers, and in some cases entire groups, who can help you with this work. If you do not know who is available to help, contact the

Information Technology Program at the IS, or scan the Internet for material posted by members in your country - usually an e-mail address will be included. The Internet The Internet offers wonderful opportunities to campaigners. You can supply information to millions of people around the world in an AI’s webdevelopers Visit AI’s developer’s

resource site :

<http://www.amnesty.org/ webdev>

Send an e-mail to: <webdevelop@amnesty. org> for username and password. cTIPS c Before you begin, look at as many other sites as possible. Make sure users can find the site easily. c Ensure that users can get around the site easily. Every page should include links leading to all the key parts of the site. c Keep making changes to the site. The site should be in the web’s primary language, English, as well as the local language. c Aim to provide everything electronically that you would otherwise make available to the public, such as leaflets, posters and press releases. c Consider who the information is primarily aimed at. c Do not put non-public information online. c Maintain a mailing list by asking users to leave an e-mail address if they want to volunteer, join AI, or be kept informed of changes to the website. c Make sure there is a way for users to reply with constructive criticism or praise. c Perhaps add a questionnaire to get an idea of who is visiting the site. c On-screen buttons and logos can

be borrowed from AI’s sites, but get permission from the webdeveloper first (see margin). Modern World/Information Technology 53

Campaigning on the Internet: escaping censorship The exchange of information on the Internet is not governed by national or international laws, and most governments find it almost impossible to police Internet activities. The size of the Internet makes it virtually impossible to enforce censorship. The extract below from the International Herald Tribuneillustrates the possible implications of the use of the Internet for human rights education and campaigning in countries where human rights information is restricted. c Large graphics and excessive animation slow down the speed at which pages are received and can leave visitors frustrated. c Advertise your website on other websites and elsewhere. Websites may also be maintained by legal libraries, university human rights programs, civil rights organizations and disaster relief organizations. N Public news sources range from Reuters and Agence France Presse news wires to local newspapers from all corners of the world. For sources of

international news, try:

<http://yahoo.com/news> N Informal discussion groups (usenet and similar conferences of the Association for Progressive Communicating) about human rights.

The most popular are probably: <soc.rights.human>

and: <misc.activism.progressive> There are many others, including a wide range of country-specific discussion groups under the general rubric soc.culture.(countryname). Quality can be quite variable, but a good country-specific discussion group can provide grassroots information not available through more traditional news media. N Mailing list/discussion groups (listservs) about a country are often more private and of higher quality than open discussion groups, but can be more difficult to find. If you cannot Online research There is a wealth of data on the Internet that is useful to AI’s research. A few of the categories of information available are listed below. N UN and other IGO information. UN information is available via gopher

at:

<gopher://nywork1.undp.org/>

or the web:

<http://undcp.or.at/unlinks.html> Material from a range of other IGOs is also available, such as the Organization of American States, the International Labour Organisation, and so on; the UN web page contains links to a wide variety of pages by other international organizations. Information published by Human Rights Watch, the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, and Physicians for Human Rights are all linked through

the human rights gopher at:

<gopher://gopher.humanrights.org: 5000/1> © INTERNATIONAL HERALD TRIBUNE 20.06.95 54 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual locate one, ask for information in the soc.culture newsgroup for that country. N Prisoner pages have also been established in a few cases. For example,

see:

<http://www.xs4all.nl/~tank/ spg-1/sigaction.htm> There are several sites which try to maintain nearly complete lists of the constantly expanding human rights material on the Internet. A good general "clearing house" site is the directory of the American Association for the Advancement of Science

(AAAS) at:

<http://shr.aaas.org/dhr.htm>

<soc.rights.human > and: <misc.activism.progressive> Some AI volunteers also cross-post news releases to usenet groups that discuss specific countries or human rights issues. N Most country and campaign reports are available on the

international web site at:

<http://www.amnesty.org/> and on many other national and group sites. N AI information is sometimes posted in forums where it can be publicly debated, such as in the Peacenet conference ai.general or when information is cross-posted to Internet news groups. This "open forum" publication is useful and more dynamic than posting information in read-only forums; however, the poster must be willing to monitor the news group in order to answer any questions, challenges, or other issues that may arise from the posting. N Another growing area is the provision of action material via the Internet, and in some cases using the Internet itself as a tool for appeals or protests. N Urgent Actions (UAs) can be distributed to members of the UA network by e-mail by the national UA coordinator. Some UA coordinators who already maintain e-mail

distribution services are:

M for the USA, Scott Harrison: <sharrison@igc.apc.org>

M for the UK, Ray Mitchell: <rmitchellai@gn.apc.org>

M for Germany, Guido Gabriel: <ggabriel@amnesty.cl.sub.de>

M for Canada, Marilyn McKim: <aito@web.apc.org> M for Belgium (francophone),

Xavier Zeebroeck: <xzeebroeck@aibf.be> If your national UA coordinator does not have access to e-mail, contact the AIUK UA coordinator who may be able to help. Full UAs are generally not distributed publicly because of concerns among the UA coordinators’ network about balancing worldwide response. However, the information Campaigning and action Publishing AI’s information online can

accomplish many purposes: raising general levels of awareness about human rights, both in general and as they apply to specific situations; providing detailed and accurate information to activists, other NGOs, governments and the media; publicizing AI’s work on behalf of victims; and inviting others to take part in that work. Means by which AI information is

currently "published" online include: N General information about AI is located at the international web site (www.amnesty.org) and on many other AI websites. This information includes the AI mandate, how AI addresses specific concerns such as the death penalty, and addresses of AI offices. Information about national and group activities is included on web pages established by AI Sections or local groups. N The news service is available on the main international website and by subscribing to the Amnesty-L list. To

subscribe to the list, send an e-mail to: <majordomo@oil.ca> Put the words "subscribe Amnesty-L" in the body of the message without the quote marks. Many news releases are crossposted

to general usenet groups such as: Award-winning website If you want inspiration, visit AI’s award-winning refugee campaign web site

at: <www.refuge.amnesty.org> Campaign organizer at the IS, Beate Kubitiz,

explained: "It’s the first time we’ve had a whole website dedicated to a campaign. It goes further than just publishing existing information like press releases and leaflets. The site provides ways that can directly help the campaign, for example you can download posters or add your name to an electronic petition." International outrage, concern and solidarity following the massacre in Beijing in 1989 was able to reach into China as never before because of the rapid growth in the number of fax machines, particularly in the Chinese business community. Modern World/Information Technology 55 portion of a UA is often posted to public forums with a footer inviting readers to join the UA network. UAs are available through the APC

networks in English at: <ai.uan> and in

German at: <ai.uan.de> N Worldwide Appeals, greeting card appeals and other special appeals are posted on the international website and several national, group and volunteer sites inviting the general public to respond. In some cases, electronic response forms are also provided. N The American Freedom Writer appeals are distributed by e-mail to the Freedom Writer network. N Web pages about a specific prisoner or other cases have been established by some local groups, with requests to write on behalf of the prisoner, copies of letters received from the prisoner or his/her family, and other information. These individual human stories can be very effective in illustrating how AI works and encouraging non-members to become active. For example, see the page on an Argentine prisoner maintained by Mike

Katz-Lacabe of Group 64 at:

<http://www.best.com/~mlacabe/ puigjane.html> The potential for using the Internet to build the human and financial resources available for AI’s human rights work is just beginning to develop. Areas that need to be worked

on further include: how to register as a new member through the Internet; how to buy AI reports and merchandise; and how to donate funds to AI. A useful resource on using the Internet for fundraising is maintained

by Howard Lake of the UK Section at:

<http://fundraising.co.uk> A few Sections have put membership application forms on the Internet, which is an extremely convenient way for new members to join, although people should not be asked to send credit card details over the Internet without adequate security. A CD-ROM produced by AIUSA entitled Amnesty Interactive. Helping the movement work together There are many ways of using electronic communications to keep in touch internally, to foster consultation, information sharing, coordinated action and international solidarity. Below are just a few of the things being tried by various national and local bodies. N Several Sections (in the USA and Canada, for example) have linked their board members and other activistleaders by e-mail in order to facilitate quick consultation and in-depth discussion without constant meetings. N Several Sections have opened private conference or bulletin boards for AI members in their country using private bulletin board software (in francophone Belgium, Sweden, the

Netherlands and Argentina, for 56 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual example) or by establishing private conferences through a public service provider, such as the <ai.ideas> conference on Peacenet, or, for more specific concerns, <ai.computer> and <ai.policy> These bulletin boards may

include: information on events; crosspostings of AI reports and AI internal information; and AI action forms. They provide a convenient and cheap way of making information and consultation available to members. Please remember that pre-embargo press material and information about strategies on forthcoming campaigns are sensitive and should not be published to the entire membership. N There are a number of conferences, "listservs" and other electronic distribution networks open to AI members with specific interests. Many conferences have a "conf-to-mail" facility so that people who have only email access can participate. A small

sample includes: M "Amnestyd" is an internal e-mail discussion group for sharing ideas and questions among members. For

information, send an e-mail to: <amnestyd-request@magnus.acs.ohiostate. edu> If you wish to join, please give your name and indicate your AI affiliation in the body of your message. M "ITGen" is a manually maintained discussion group for general issues about information technology. A similar group, "Ticorreo", operates in Spanish. To join, send an e-mail to <itgen@amnesty.org> putting the words "subscribe ai-www" in the body of the message without the quote marks. M "AI-Fund" is a manually maintained discussion group for fundraisers. To join, send an e-mail to

Howard Lake at the UK Section: <hlake @ ai-uk.gn.apc.org> A similar group, "redrec", operates in Spanish. To join, send an e-mail to

David Coe at the UK Section: <dcoe @ ai-uk.gn.apc.org> M AIUSA maintains a number of theme networks.

The Legal Support Network: <sfarrior@igc.apc.org> The Conscientious Objectors

Support Network: <jcdickinson@igc.apc.org>

The Educators Network: <janets@igc.apc.org>

The Government Action Network: <gan@aiusa.usa.com> M Several countries have national computer volunteer groups that will provide training on how to use e-mail and public networks. There are active national computer groups in the USA, UK, Germany, Australia, Italy, Canada and several other countries. M All staff at the IS are available by e-mail. If you do not have a specific contact but need information from the IS, you can send an e-mail to the general

mailbox at: <amnestyis@amnesty.org> The first line in the main body of the message should be general information, for example

***Attention: Africa Research*** or ***Please deliver to the human rights education team***. Be sure to include your name and e-mail address in the body of the message, as well as contact information for other ways of reaching you (postal address, fax number, etc). The workload at the IS is very heavy; please do not send an e-mail there if your query can be handled by your national office. N Other ways in which electronic

communication could be used are: to link members in a country linking project; to plan international campaigns; or to support members of a particular membership network (such as a lawyers’ network or a medical action network). If you maintain an AI website, or are planning to set one up, you will need a copy of AI’s Electronic Publishing Guidelines, which will give advice on what to publish, and what not to publish, on the Internet. "If you cry ‘Forward!’ you must without fail make a plan in what direction to go. Don’t you see that if, without doing so, you call out the word to both a monk and a revolutionary, they will go in directions precisely opposite?" Chekhov 1

CHAPTER 3 ORGANIZING FOR ACTION

Campaigning in AI is always part of a coordinated global effort. The information and strategies produced at the international level of AI are the basis of national campaigning strategies and action. This chapter deals with the relationship between these two levels. It also looks at the

internal context within AI of campaigning and the structures and organizational health of AI. Contents International action planning / 58 Action forms / 58 Deciding actions / 58 Campaigning on a national level / 59 The campaign coordinator / 59 Information / 59 What level of action? / 61 Integrating or upgrading actions / 61 Section-initiated actions / 62 Adapting IS strategies and materials / 62 Supporting action from the membership / 63 Theme campaigning / 66 Human rights violations / 66 Identity / 66 Events / 66 How theme campaigns work / 68 Campaigning and organizational health / 68 Context of campaigning / 68 Structure and organization /68 Expanding capacity and developing skills / 70 Continuity / 71 Internal objectives / 72 58 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual them. Advice on adapting IS strategies, actions and materials is given later in this chapter. Specific details about current action forms are outlined in AI’s Menu

ard of Actions (AI Index: ORG 32/01/96).

This provides: N a brief explanation of all the action forms currently used by AI; N expectations about the levels of activity that Sections and other AI structures will generate in relation to the different action forms; N standards regarding IS production of internal circulars and external materials. International action planning To help maintain AI’s reputation for impartiality and independence, the organization has developed an Action Planning Process, which aims to achieve balance of action across geographical regions and themes. This process, which is guided by AI’s research and analysis, also ensures that there is campaigning not just on countries or issues that feature in media headlines or excite widespread interest in our society, but also on those which are "forgotten" or "difficult". Action forms AI has developed a number of standard ways of generating different levels of action from its membership. These are known internally as action forms. Action forms are continually adapted as

campaigning needs change and AI evaluates its methods. Standardized

action forms are important to: N allow clear choices to be made by AI about the most effective action to be directed towards cases, countries or issues over time; N allow advance action planning by all parts of AI; N provide clarity about expectations for levels of campaigning activity. Standardized action forms are not intended to stifle creativity or result in standardized campaigning - AI is committed to creative and strategic campaigning at all levels of the membership. International action forms are standardized to make expectations and advance planning readily understandable and communicable between AI structures. Section campaigners are encouraged to adapt actions to make them more effective. This involves analysing the capacity of your Section and society to influence different human rights situations. This may mean prioritizing particular international objectives or upgrading levels of action on some countries. It may mean not participating in some actions or participating only in parts of

A report by the Committee for the Systematic Evaluation of Techniques (SYSTEC) in

1989 (AI Index: ACT 11/03/89) into long-term prisoner of conscience work showed clearly that Action Files that were part of a country strategy were more successful than those for which there seemed to be no strategy. Deciding actions Most country actions initiated by the International Secretariat (IS) come from the process of reviewing a country strategy (in which Sections participate) and the rolling program of strategy meetings which occur on each country. Needs for long-term campaigning action are assessed and planned. Changes to longer term strategy may be necessary because of an unforeseen change in a country situation. There are agreed criteria for deciding when it is appropriate to implement full-scale country campaigns. Sections are involved in developing the strategy of these campaigns. Sections are expected to take part in major country and theme campaigns at some level. They are also expected to take the information on planned actions and assess which of them should be a priority for their Section on the

basis of strategic opportunities and principles outlined in the guidelines on Section specialization. Action forms Action forms cover all AI’s campaigning - from the short blast of thousands of letters, faxes and telegrams of Urgent Actions to the steady activity of local AI groups on Action Files or the major concerted worldwide efforts of country campaigns. All action forms are meant to be part of an integrated strategy on a country or issue. They should allow AI to focus its resources for a period, to sustain a level of action and to vary the amount of pressure or concern according to that strategy. The movement needs to review consistently the impact of these action forms. For example, if Action Files do not seem to be working, other forms of action, such as a special action for lawyers, could be tried. Theme campaigns can be initiated from International Council Meeting decisions, Sections or the relevant teams in the IS. They require ratification by the The primary focus of AI’s campaign

International Executive coordinators is to develop the Committee. effectiveness and capacity of AI’s N ensuring that all relevant people in the Section/structure (media, co-group, lobbyist, fundraiser, outreach coordinator, etc.) are involved from the earliest stages of discussion and kept informed throughout the planning and When the IS announces an implementation of major campaigns; action, Sections will N producing national campaign normally be given 18 strategies, in cooperation with all relevant

months’ notice for a major members of the Section, which outline: Mhow national campaigns will notice for a smaller action. contribute to the achievement of the For crisis situations action international objectives of the campaign; will have to be mobilized campaign or six months’ Mnational objectives for lobbying, more rapidly. outreach, publicity, etc; Campaigning on a national level The campaign coordinator members, of the wider society and of the government to protect specific human rights around the world. A campaign coordinator is at the centre of AI campaigning in his or her country. S/he is also central to communication with the international movement and plays a key role in planning, implementing and evaluating a campaign. Although specific functions will vary, most campaign coordinators will

have the following responsibilities: N developing the strategic campaigning capacity in AI’s membership by encouraging local and specialist AI groups and other membership structures to think about how they can best contribute to international and Section campaigning objectives and by providing training in campaigning techniques, etc; N organizing initial consultations to discuss and plan action calendars and campaigns; Many "internal" objectives of campaigns to help improve the Section’s work, such as recruiting members, strengthening contacts with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), fundraising, etc; Mthe suggested involvement and Organizing for Action 59 activities of different parts of the membership structure in relation to campaigns, and the materials and support that they will need; N informing the Campaigning and Crisis Response Program (CCR) at the IS (or, in the case of non-Section structures, the IS Regional Development Team) of your Section’s plans and progress;

N producing campaign materials (depending on resources), giving advice and generally supporting action from the membership; N coordinating the involvement of the Section and various membership structures in campaigns; N coordinating and monitoring throughout campaigns, being in regular contact and providing feedback to the IS and to groups/individuals working on campaigns in your country; N evaluating campaigns to see whether and how the national objectives were achieved, and contributing to the international evaluation. Information AI relies on information. In practice, this means that an enormous amount of information from the IS arrives by post, fax or e-mail. It also means that campaigners must keep themselves informed of international current affairs and domestic political, social and economic developments as these form the context for the Section’s campaigning. The most important sources of ISoriginated information for the

campaign coordinator are (at present): N the Action Planning Bulletin, which is the basic action planning tool for all Sections, issued in April and November; N the weekly campaign coordinator’s fax (in English, French and Spanish) and mailing, which provides updates on action planning, warning of unscheduled actions, advance copies of campaigning circulars, requests for feedback, etc; N the News Service, which provides advance warning of media initiatives and AI’s responses to human rights developments worldwide (these go 60 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Criteria for country campaigns

Proposals for country campaigns should meet the following criteria: N the gravity of the human rights situation should merit the high investment of resources which a country campaign entails; N there are specific strategic reasons for undertaking the campaign at this time; N the proposed country campaign should contribute to ensuring a regional and political balance in AI’s campaigning; N the proposed country should be a designated "high priority" or "super-high priority" country; N there should be the potential for achieving concrete positive results in the country; N there should be a requirement for the involvement of a significant part of the membership (if not, another action form will be more appropriate); N the country strategy should appear to be relatively stable in the medium term (18 to 24 months) to enable planning and the preparation of materials (this does not exclude campaigning on volatile countries so long as the underlying political situation, the power structures and the human rights context are unlikely to change dramatically);

N it must be possible to obtain the information needed to prepare the campaign.

The proposal for a country campaign should also identify: N the implications for AI membership development and strengthening of the NGO movement in the country; N how the campaign might strengthen international and regional human rights standards or mechanisms. directly to Section press officers); N UAs, which provide the latest information on particular human rights violations that should be acted on, as well as the most recent background summaries of AI’s concerns on any country (they are sent almost daily to UA coordinators and are included in the Weekly Mailing); N the Weekly Mailing to Sections, which contains full country reports, policy and organizational developments, financial statements, etc, and has a contents sheet so that the most relevant can be easily selected. There are also different campaigning strategies and circulars. There may be separate mailings to intergovernmental organization (IGO), death penalty and outreach coordinators, although copies of these circulars are often in the mailing

to the campaign coordinator. cTIPS To avoid drowning in a sea of paper and being overwhelmed by the many demands, you may find it helpful to develop a system for prioritizing mail and managing your time. c Be realistic about how long things take to do. Keep a record of how much time you spend on tasks in a typical day or week so that you can plan your time realistically. c Make sure that you allow time for tasks that are important in the long term, but which may suffer when urgent tasks arise. For example, filing is important, but is rarely urgent. However, if you do not allow time for it, your other work may suffer when you cannot find the papers you need. c Some people have found it useful to divide their work into categories, such as "Urgent and Important", "Important but not Urgent", "Urgent but Not Important", "Not Urgent and Not Important", or alternatively, "Must Do", "Should Do", "Would like to do if there is time". This enables you to prioritize your work. It also means that you can set

aside a certain amount of time each day or week to do the "Important but Not Urgent" or "Should Do" tasks. c Write daily or weekly task lists in the morning or the night before, remembering to keep to your priorities. cTIPS WORKING WITH VOLUNTEERS c Spend time making sure volunteers have what they need. c Find out what motivates them and ensure you keep giving the motivation. c Try and match volunteers’ skills and interests with appropriate tasks. c Give people a definite list of tasks for which they are responsible. c Provide some variety and room to develop new skills and experience. c Do not overwork volunteers! c Involve volunteers in discussions and activities. c Create a pleasant working environment. c Show appreciation and celebrate success. c Where possible, let people work together on tasks. Alternatively, set a "task for the day" and do it. This is a useful way of forcing yourself to decide your priorities and will give you a sense of achievement when you do what you set out to do.

c Fix deadlines for tasks. Try to be realistic about how long things will take but also bear in mind that tasks tend to expand to fill the time you give them so try to stick to your deadline once you have set it. c Try to set aside periods of time that

are free from interruptions: ask others to take your telephone calls (and do the same for them sometimes), have meeting-free periods, etc. c Do one thing at a time. If you remain focused, you will get things done quicker. c Do not try to be a perfectionist when it does not really matter. Try to do some things "well enough". c Try to deal with pieces of paper only once. Every time you start to look at something, it will take you time to focus on what needs doing. The more times you do this, the more time you are wasting on refocusing your attention on the issue concerned. c Plan your work, especially large tasks. Time spent preparing what needs to be done and when will save you time in the long run. c Try not to postpone important matters that are unpleasant. They can preoccupy your mind and block your creativity. c Learn to say "NO"! What level of action? Part of the campaign coordinator’s role is to filter information received from the IS and adapt it to local circumstances. Pressure of time may

simply mean that this involves translating or cutting texts into a more digestible size before distributing them within the Section or externally. Organizing for Action 61 Wherever possible, however, the process should mean deciding how your Section’s membership, government and society can make the best contribution to AI’s international campaigning objectives. The IS should provide a brief explanation of why participation from your society is of particular importance. This may also suggest which sectors or individuals may be of particular importance for the action. This advice is one of the starting points for determining whether your Section takes part and your level of participation. Other important factors are the capacity of your structure and the priorities it has set for growth and development (see below). Integrating or upgrading actions The levels of action suggested by the IS are in general for guidance only. It is therefore possible, and sometimes advisable, to upgrade or downgrade

actions, to integrate actions, or to initiate your own actions. Sections may upgrade an action if they see that there is the potential in their country to give it a higher profile, or to make a greater impact than was suggested internationally, or to balance its campaigning program. It is often possible to link or integrate actions to suit a Section’s priorities, resources and working style or to use fully the opportunities that exist nationally. cTIPS c Find out if any AI groups are working on Action Files on the countries or issues in question. Can these files be used to help illustrate the campaign and boost the action on these cases? c Can UAs on the country or issue be used during a campaign as an ongoing focus of action by supplying them to the media or constructing special actions such as vigils or embassy visits? c Can UAs help the work of local or specialist AI groups working on Action 62 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Files or other actions by providing fresh opportunities to highlight related

issues? c Can IS news releases be adapted to highlight issues of particular concern to AI, such as impunity? c Can particular campaigns be used to strengthen and expand specialist groups or Regional Action Networks (RANs)? c Give the demands for action in IS news and campaign media releases a national focus. Use a local spokesperson and a quote from them in the release. Direct the campaign demands specifically towards your government. What would you like them to do? Provide details of what the campaign aims to do and what it will involve. c Make leaflets and campaigning materials interesting to your public and audience. International leaflets have by their nature to be general and you are best placed to make them connect effectively with people in your country. c Give a national/local focus to actions. Provide the addresses of relevant embassies and consulates. Suggest that people write to newspapers or government officials in your country as appropriate. c Make use of your national culture in

your campaigning. Emphasize its similarities with international human rights values - its respect for fairness, sticking up for those who are vulnerable, respect for life, compassion, etc. c Are there cultural or historical factors that could help people relate to human rights violations in other countries? Has your society suffered from political repression in the past? Is there significant interest in the music and culture of the society of the country you are campaigning on? Making decisions

Decisions about Section participation in campaign should be based on: N the international strategy N national context/issues N available resources International strategies should identify the countries on which campaigning action is particularly important. Where this is not explicit, campaigners can contact the relevant researcher or campaign coordinator at the IS to discuss their expectations. Adapting IS strategies and materials The information sent by the IS for any campaigning action is supposed to meet the average needs of every Section. Most Sections will want to adapt it to make it more appropriate to their own campaigning environment. For example, the IS will produce an international strategy for a campaign. It is then up to the Section to devise a national strategy and set down measurable aims (see Chapter 1). A campaign will be most successful if it is based on an analysis of the potential of different sectors in your society and of your government to stop human rights violations in the target country.

Similarly, campaigning circulars and leaflets should be adapted to include Section-initiated actions Some Sections initiate their own actions from time to time to take advantage of a particular situation in their country, such as heightened media interest in a country or issue, or to link in with the Section’s priorities, such as fundraising. In such cases, it is important to discuss the plan with the IS to ensure that the action fits in with the internationally agreed strategy on a country or theme and to agree the required level of IS input. There is a widespread recognition that to be more effective AI must develop ways of encouraging AI’s membership at all levels to make strategic choices about how they can most effectively contribute to AI’s objectives.* There are various materials available to help different levels of the membership to make strategic choices. You can also contact relevant IS development and/or campaigning staff for further advice. (See Strategic Thinking in Amnesty

International, AI Index: POL 50/05/94.) Nothing succeeds like success! Feedback is an important way of encouraging and motivating people at every level of the movement by the good news and success stories of other campaigners and campaigns. appropriate recommendations specific to your country and to make the issues interesting to your audiences. Wherever possible, campaigning materials produced at the national level for the membership should seek to develop their strategic and campaigning skills. There are usually a variety of readymade or easily adaptable materials for campaigns, including photograph displays, videos, leaflets, etc. The IS also often produces more basic material, such as photographs and quotes, which Sections may choose to use in displays, leaflets or magazine articles. In some cases it may be possible for Sections to link together with other Sections to share resources for designs and materials in a common language. The following questions may help you when deciding how to adapt IS

strategies and materials. gQUESTIONS g What do you want to achieve? For instance, what parts of the government do you want to take what action? An AI group campaigning kit N Background to country/issue and summary of AI’s specific concerns. N Summary of international and national strategy and rationale for it, including a list of the specific objectives of the campaign. N Question and Answer (Q&A) sheets to answer anticipated questions that group members or the public may have. N Advice on outreach actions, such as how to approach local religious leaders and what action to ask for. Provide separate sheets specific to the different outreach sectors you are prioritizing. If there are materials specifically designed to appeal to these outreach sectors, include enough copies of these. N Advice and materials for gaining media coverage (see Chapter 9). N Advice on lobbying, such as how to approach and arrange meetings with local politicians, points to raise, what action to ask for (see Chapter 11).

N Letter-writing advice, such as points to raise with officials in the target country. Include advice on correct style, salutation, when and how many letters to send to each address, whether to write as AI members or not, the addresses to write to (see Chapter 7). N Suggestions and advice for fundraising during the campaign (see Chapter 5). N Suggestions and advice on conducting public activities to highlight the campaign (see Chapter 7). N Advice on leaflets/posters/petitions, such as how they can be used and distributed (see Chapter 8). N A list of significant dates for the campaign - in the target country or the home country. N A copy of the relevant AI report or briefing with an order form. Some Sections use coloured paper for different topics to make it easier to follow. Make sure coloured paper can be photocopied. Organizing for Action 63 g What do you want groups or individual members to do? For instance, do you want them to visit their local members of parliament? g What materials do you need to

provide to enable them to do it? Supporting action from the membership N Groups For most major campaigns a campaign kit can be the best way to supply AI local or specialist groups with all the advice and material they need to take action. Giving groups enough notice is

important: it will encourage participation and enable these groups to plan properly for maximum effect. If time allows, send out an initial preparatory campaign kit to introduce the campaign objectives and strategy and to provide questions that may help to focus group discussions on the development of their strategy. One of the advantages of AI groups for Section campaigning work is 64 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual that they can plan a range of activities and mobilize action from others in their community. This means that the advice and materials supplied give them the power to do what individuals alone could not. N Individual members Servicing individual members and getting action from them can be more problematic. Sending them all campaigning materials can become very expensive. Groups tend to hold individual members accountable for action - formally and informally. It is much more difficult to know that a member will act on the material received. In many Sections even hardhitting

direct mail appeals with a simple action request of returning a coupon with money achieve, on average, only a 10 per cent response rate. Nevertheless, involving AI’s individual membership in campaigning actions remains an important goal. It can enhance AI’s campaigning effectiveness and build a wider commitment to AI. If possible, make these networks self-financing by encouraging their members to pay an extra fee or encouraging others to specifically fund the scheme. c Include campaigning actions in fundraising appeals. c Ask individual members to get others to join AI and take action to persuade organizations of which they are members to support AI’s campaigns. N Feedback Feedback is often the forgotten part of a campaign coordinator’s role. Feedback from Sections on participation in campaigns and campaigning is essential for planning and monitoring campaigning at the international level. For example, a strategy may not be working because certain parts of the membership are not taking action,

1440 rather than because it is a bad strategy. Without feedback, AI will not know and an effective way of stopping human rights violations may be abandoned. Timely feedback also allows monitoring of campaigning impact and adjustments in strategy. For example, it is important for a campaign to know if some embassies agree to meet AI in one country as other Sections may be able to use this information in their approaches. If some particular government representatives have begun to respond to AI’s representations from a particular country, this may be important for focusing future strategy. Feedback can help to identify areas where some form of assistance, in training, materials, information or resources from the IS or elsewhere, may help overcome problems. It also enables resources and ideas to be shared and campaigning to be improved. Campaigners can face similar problems, overcome them differently and produce materials that have a much wider usage than simply in their own society. Without feedback

these things can remain a "national" secret. cTIPS MOBILIZING INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS c Include campaigning actions in newsletters for members and supporters. Most AI structures produce a newsletter for supporters. This can include feature cases with points you could raise and people to write to. Include sets of campaign postcards stapled into the centre pages and pre-addressed so they only need a stamp and signature. c Organize specialist letter-writing networks. Invite members to join the UA network. Some Sections and other organizations have established networks of letter-writers ready to respond quickly to media coverage or political developments related to AI’s work by writing letters to editors and local and national politicians. Be aware that establishing such structures can often mean an ongoing commitment of resources. 65

‘Lives behind the Lies’: ( clockwise from top right) a street artist in Zurich; AI delegates meet relatives of the "disappeared" in Lima, Peru; a table set for the "disappeared" in New Zealand; the Bourequat brothers, former "disappeared" prisoners from Morocco, at the campaign launch in Stockholm, Sweden; footprints of the "disappeared" in New Zealand. © AI 66 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The major categories of human rights violations that AI has

campaigned against are: M Torture M Death Penalty M Political Killings M "Disappearances" Theme campaigning In AI’s early days, the term "theme" referred to a type of human rights violation within AI’s mandate. Theme campaigns against torture, the death penalty, "disappearances" and extrajudicial executions (political killings) were major events in the life of the movement. Today the word "theme" has a

broader meaning within AI. It can be: N a category of human rights violation that AI opposes; N a section of society at risk, such as women, refugees, LGBT people or trade unionists; N an event or anniversary, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ 50th anniversary or the 1993 UN World Conference on Human Rights. Human rights violations When an individual’s human rights are violated AI can respond on an individual basis. If the violations continue, especially if they appear to be endemic, AI responds by looking at the patterns of violations which emerge. These patterns will form the focus of AI’s country strategy and may result in a major country campaign. There are times, however, when the persistence of torture or other violations in many countries leads AI to conduct a worldwide campaign, focusing on that particular form of human rights violation. Such campaigns can help to generate the momentum for global action on the particular violation. One aim is to establish and strengthen

international standards and mechanisms. They can also help to build awareness and educate AI’s membership on complex areas of AI’s mandate. Moreover, they help to show that AI is universal in its approach - taking up violations in countries across the regional and political spectrum. The campaign against the death penalty in 1989, for example, highlighted the USA and China, and built the momentum of governments ratifying the Second Optional Protocol to the Identity When one group or section of society is particularly targeted for human rights violations, either because of their identity or as part of a larger pattern of violations, it can be useful to focus on the identity of the group in order to draw attention to and mobilize a response against the attacks. Sometimes there might be specific preventive measures that AI will advocate. Sometimes focusing on a specific group can in itself have a preventive effect. On an emotional level, people often respond better to people than to issues. AI is frequently

asked: "Who are the victims?" An international overview may reveal that similar groups of people are targets of similar human rights violations around the world. When this happens, AI can illustrate and campaign on global problems that need global solutions. The groups or sectors of society

that AI has focused on have included: M Women M Indigenous people M Refugees M Children M LGBT people M Trade unionists M Human rights defenders M Conscientious objectors Events Theme events are often anniversaries, although they may be conferences or sporting events that provide opportunities for AI’s work. AI and other organizations, for example, campaigned around the death penalty at the time of the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, USA. The 1993 UN World Conference on Human Rights presented the opportunity to work for reform of the UN 67 AI campaign on China as seen from around the

world. Top two pictures: the UK Section launches

the campaign in London’s Chinatown. Below: a mural in Brazil; a demonstration in Pakistan; AI’s Secretary General Pierre Sané delivers a copy of AI’s China report to the Chinese Embassy

in Bangkok: riot police block his path. © AI 68 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual human rights system and to challenge the concerted efforts by some governments to use the conference to undermine the basis of AI’s work. AI’s campaigning led to the creation of the post of UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. The 1996 UN World Conference on Women in Beijing was also the focus of major campaigning by AI and other organizations. can broadly be classified as "internal" (related to AI as an organization) and "external" (related to the world outside and the human rights issues on which AI campaigns). This section deals with the internal framework for campaigning. The core internal, organizational factor affecting AI’s campaigning is the mandate. This defines in broad terms what members, groups, Sections and the international organization as a whole campaign on. There are also organizational working rules (such as the work on own country rule); decision-making structures and

processes (such as groupings and International Council Meetings); and international priorities (such as those decided at ICMs). All these provide a context at the international level for the activities carried out by AI Sections and groups all over the world and help to ensure the efficient functioning of the international movement. At the national level, organizational factors are an important consideration for Section campaign coordinators. AI cannot end human rights violations in the short term. This means we must constantly build and regenerate our organizational capacity to sustain campaigning activities in the future. Campaign coordinators have a vital role in ensuring that structures and organizational procedures serve rather than hinder campaigning work, and that campaigning contributes to the maintenance, regeneration and effective functioning of the whole organization. This section focuses on why campaign coordinators need to concern

themselves with: N organizational structures and processes in the Section N building the capacity of the Section N ensuring continuity within the Section N internal organizational objectives for the Section. How theme campaigns work AI is continually campaigning on the themes identified above through its work on individual appeals, Action File work by individual groups and country actions and campaigns. It also focuses on these themes at different times of the year, such as International Women’s Day on 8 March, International Children’s Day, AI Week in October, and a Trade Unionists’ Action on 1 May. Sections can decide whether or not, and how, to participate in these actions. AI also organizes regular major theme campaigns involving the worldwide membership. These involve the production of campaigning materials that have a much longer shelflife, for AI and for others campaigning on these issues, and are useful

campaigning references. They include: M Torture in the Eighties M When the State Kills... The Death Penalty vs Human Rights M Getting away with Murder - political killings and "disappearances" in the 1990s Strategies for these major campaigns are worked out in consultation with Sections, the IS and other NGOs. Section campaign coordinators are encouraged to adapt and develop their own strategies to complement internationally agreed objectives. Campaigning and organizational health Context of campaigning Campaigning and campaigns do not happen in a vacuum. They are affected by the context within which they take place. The local, national and international conditions affecting AI’s campaigning Structure and organization For campaigning to be effective, it needs to function within a stable, flexible and appropriate organization. For an AI structure to be strong and credible, it needs a dynamic and effective campaigning program. Problem solving Before rushing to find solutions, you should check that you have identified the

problem correctly. As Einstein said: "The formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution." N Identify the problem M Break the problem down into component parts by listing all the "symptoms" of the problem, such as low morale, inadequate access to the media. M Gather any background information on the problem by talking to the people involved.

M Brainstorm: What do we know about the problem? What are the causes? (See margin, page 71.) N Find solutions This can be easy if you have correctly identified the problem. But do not commit yourselves to the most obvious solution before considering alternatives. There are

several ways you can do this: M Brainstorm. M Ask probing questions of a variety of people. What strategy could resolve the problem? What approaches have not been thought of? M List ideas under two columns. What could make the problem better? What could make it worse? M Invite someone with little relationship to the problem to provide ideas. People often find it difficult to be creative about familiar problems. N Make the decision

You probably have many ideas now. To decide on the right one: M Start by eliminating unworkable choices. M Look at combining solutions. M Look at the potential costs, risks, benefits and rewards of the remaining options. M Test the chosen solution. Does it solve the root cause of the problem? Does it satisfy everyone or most people? Is there time to implement it? Do we have the resources to implement it? Maintaining an appropriate balance between campaigning activities and the organizational needs of a mass movement is a constant challenge for AI. There is no one organizational structure that suits all countries or situations. Different options have been explored by AI Sections over the years. Your Section may need only one or two of these structures, or there may be others that would suit your Section’s needs better. The golden rule is that a structure must meet an identified need and be appropriate for its intended purpose. In AI, this means that structures must be responsive to the needs of the

campaigning that they exist to support, and appropriate in terms of the resources and overall priorities of the Section. Only Organizing for Action 69 your Section can decide the best organizational structure for your needs. When taking such decisions, the following issues are worth considering. N Integration How will you ensure that the various functions within your Section - media, fundraising, campaigning, membership development - are integrated? What methods of organizing will improve integration of these functions? How will you ensure that members, local groups, specialist groups, and so on are appropriately involved in the formulation of national campaigning strategy? How do you encourage local and specialist groups to develop strategies that would complement the national strategy? 70 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual N Balancing campaigning and organizational resources Campaigning activities without adequate organizational attention and resources may become chaotic, disjointed and

ineffective. Likewise, formal campaigning structures absorb resources, so you need to ensure that the structures are effective in terms of campaigning end results, and do not become a bureaucratic or financial burden. N Communication Clear and timely communication is essential to effective campaigning. National campaigning strategy must be communicated to groups in advance to allow them to plan appropriate actions. Similarly, groups must keep the Section informed of their activities so that the Section can maintain an overview of what is being done. What communication mechanisms are needed to ensure that the different bodies in your Section receive the information they need, when they need it? Again, you must exercise caution to ensure that communication does not become an end in itself. Overloading people with irrelevant information can be as great a problem as not giving them enough. N Decision-making Commitment from the decision-makers (such as the board) to strategy - and the resources that the strategy entails - is

also important to effective campaigning. Decision-making processes should be clear and responsive to the needs of relevant people at the relevant time. Campaigners should provide decisionmakers with the appropriate information and alert relevant people in the Section when unclear decisions have a negative impact on the Section’s campaigning effectiveness. build on their existing campaigning capacity. The campaign coordinator’s role is central to this. AI expects a lot of its members. They need to know about AI’s mandate, current concerns, working methods and fundraising, and how to plan a campaign and undertake a myriad of campaigning and organizational activities. It is obvious that they need support to develop the appropriate knowledge and skills. Some of the main

ways of offering such support include: Expanding capacity and developing skills There are always more human rights violations than AI can campaign against effectively. This is one reason why strategic campaigning is essential for AI. In addition, all structures need to Training is often more difficult than you think. Participants may be nervous about trying new things. It is often tricky to train people in something on which you are an expert. Knowing how to do something and being able to train others to do it are completely different skills. If possible, seek the advice of an experienced trainer, particularly if it is a difficult issue or if the training is using a lot of Section resources. Advice is also available from the International Development Unit at the IS. cTIPS N Full training programs Many Sections have an ongoing, structured program for training their members. This may include an induction program and more advanced training in AI’s mandate, concerns, working methods and techniques for

active members. Many Sections provide specialist training for people with particular responsibilities - board members, country coordinators, press officers, group campaign coordinators, etc. They also recruit professional trainers to identify members’ training needs and design and run the program. Campaign coordinators have an important role to play in ensuring that the training program is responsive to the campaigning priorities of the Section. This may mean contributing to the overall design of the program to make sure that campaigning needs are addressed, and helping to run training sessions on campaigning techniques, strategic planning, campaign coordination and other issues. A training program should always be part of the overall strategic plan of the Section. For example, if outreach has been identified as a priority, then the training program should contribute by training the membership in how to do outreach work. Logo for AI’s 1997 campaign on refugees’ human rights N One-off training sessions

Groups, networks, the Section board, staff and others may occasionally need one-off training sessions on particular issues. For example, at an annual general meeting prior to the launch of a country campaign, people within the Section may need to be briefed on the background and main concerns underlying the campaign, as well as the Section’s objectives and strategy and perhaps the specific techniques relevant to the campaign. N Materials Written materials are an important way of training members. Some sections put a Tip of the Month in their regular group mailing on techniques such as letter-writing, planning or organizing a cTIPS demonstration. Campaign materials can also incorporate a training element by BRAINSTORMING including, for example, questions to c Start with a question guide the group’s discussion on their relevant to the topic being strategy for the campaign. considered. c The lead person should c Identifying and analysing needs write down people’s ideas as What is the need? (Is there a major

they arise, preferably on a campaign approaching, for example?) large sheet of paper so that Is training necessary? (A group might everyone can see. ask for a training workshop when you c People should not may be able to meet the need by a letter comment on or challenge or telephone call). Who needs others’ ideas, or try to training? When do they need it? Who is interpret their meaning the best person to do the training and during the session as this will what are the priorities? stifle creativity. c Try to generate as many c Training objectives ideas as possible. What exactly do you want the training c After the session, discuss to achieve? If you are not clear about and analyse the ideas. this, it will not achieve the results you want. Training objectives should state what the participants will be able to do as a result of the training (for example, write a one-page news release). Objectives will vary according to whom the training is aimed, even if it is on a similar subject (training for new

members on the mandate will aim for a lower level of understanding than mandate training for group coordinators). The key is to be specific and realistic. Organizing for Action 71 c Designing and running the training Draw up a training plan to achieve your objectives. This will involve analysing what you need to cover and how to cover it. For example, to give the background to a campaign, a simple presentation with handouts and visual aids summarizing the main points may be appropriate. To develop skills, such as doing media interviews, you may need to give people the chance to practice. Make sure you allow time in the session for introductions, presentation of the agenda and aims of the session, conclusions and questions. Try to do a dummy-run beforehand. You may find that your plan looks fine on paper but does not work when you do it for real. c Evaluate the training It is often difficult to evaluate the benefits of training as there are so many factors affecting how people work in an

organization such as AI. However, ask participants to complete an evaluation form at the end of the training session. You may also follow this up later with a telephone call or letter to find out whether the training has helped (see Chapter 13). Continuity Campaign coordinators must learn how NOT to be indispensable. If the campaigning capacity of the Section depends on you as an individual then it is too fragile. A strong structure, with other people who share the responsibilities for carrying out the Section’s work, can cope with absences - whether temporary or permanent, planned or unplanned. N Do you have others working with you where possible? If, for example, you establish a working group to help coordinate a particular campaign, the people in this group will start to build campaigning coordination skills and will be in a better position to take over when you are no longer around. 72 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual N Do you have a clear filing system? A good filing system keeps a simple,

accurate record of your work and will help the people who take over from you. N Do you have clearly documented tasks and procedures? It is helpful to have the main areas of your work written down in one place so that other people can take over without having to learn everything from the beginning. For example, do you have regular daily, weekly, monthly or yearly tasks? Are there agreed procedures for seeking the approval of the board for particlar activities? N Training someone to take over before you leave. If you decide to leave your position, allow time for training your replacement. This is essential if you are leaving the organization altogether. If you are still going to be involved with AI, it will save you time in the long-run as it will stop the need for questions weeks or months after you have handed over your responsibilities. Continuity is enormously important, especially in a voluntary organization such as AI where people in important positions may come and go frequently. Without preparation, there

is a danger that when a person leaves, all their knowledge, experience, contacts and expertise will go with them, leaving a void in the organization’s capacity to do its important work. new members, it is far more likely that you will motivate people and succeed in your aims if you can demonstrate that the request for money or training is directly linked to campaigning activity and achievements. For this reason, campaigning strategy should integrate the internal objectives of the Section. Examples of internal objectives for

a campaign include: N establishing or developing specialist campaigning structures - for example, a business group may be established as part of a country campaign in which outreach to businesses is an important part of the strategy; N increasing skills and knowledge of the membership; N producing campaigning materials with a longer-term purpose or wider application; N establishing contact with specific NGOs; N recruiting a target number of members; N raising funds. Organizational goals will often be longer term than those for particular campaigning issues, and should be identified as part of a process to develop a long-term strategy for development of the Section and its capacity. They should be based on an analysis of the Section’s Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT- see Chapter 1), which identify specific organizational or developmental targets. Internal objectives for specific campaigns should be agreed within this overall strategic development plan for the

Section. Internal objectives Every Section formulates a strategy and objectives for campaigning activities . But Sections also need to consider the development of the Section as a whole to ensure that it is able to meet the demands of its campaigning program. Each Section therefore needs an overall strategic plan for its own development, of which campaigning will be a crucial part. Campaigning often presents the best opportunity for helping to meet the organizational and developmental needs of the Section. When trying to raise funds, train members or recruit "When written in Chinese, the word crisis is composed of two characters. One represents danger and the other represents opportunity." John F. Kennedy, former US President, in a speech made in 1959 1

CHAPTER 4 RESPONDING TO CRISES

20 The world is likely to witness an increased number of human rights and humanitarian crises. AI needs to react to these quickly and effectively, as we are expected to do by victims, AI members, the

human rights community and the general public. This chapter looks at how AI does this and how the organization is developing this area of work. Contents Criteria for launching a crisis response /74 A beginning for long-term work /74 Aims of crisis response /75 AI policy and crisis response /75 Section objectives /76 Mobilizing for action /76 Money /78 Crisis response coordinators /78 Groups and membership /78 Mobilizing a large-scale reaction / 81 Campaigning techniques /81 Media /81 Lobbying /82 Letter-writing /84 Outreach /84 Evaluation /84 74 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual N unleashing competition within the IS to launch many crisis responses. Criteria for launching a crisis response AI must respond swiftly to human rights crises. In order to sustain the commitment of our activists and broader public support, we must find ways to respond effectively to situations of massive human rights violations. As this is a relatively new area of work, AI’s response to crises is still evolving (see

Appendix 4: Mobilizing the IS during Crisis Response). AI’s Secretary General is responsible for judging when it is necessary to invoke AI’s crisis response mechanisms. Each decision takes

account of the following four criteria: N an upsurge of human rights violations within AI’s mandate on a scale which is very serious in the context of that country or region - or the risk of a serious upsurge of human rights violations;* N previously agreed action plans and resources are insufficient to respond effectively to the situation; N the need to manage within the IS the overall institutional response to the situation; N the need to mobilize rapidly the capacity of the whole movement in order to respond effectively. The crisis response mechanism will normally be operational for only a few months and will end when an ongoing country strategy has been developed that takes into account changes in the country situation. The IS will establish a process for identifying potential human rights crises as part of the country strategy development and review process in order to take preventive action where possible and to prepare contingency plans. The four criteria, which were developed in consultation with the

membership, are important because

without them AI risks: N taking too much time to decide on each crisis; N sliding from crisis to crisis; N only reacting to crises which are already in the limelight; N reacting to crises which are of interest to those Sections in a good position to influence the IS; Tanzanian Section’s refugee coordinator Joseph Muganda interviews children in the Mtanga Refugee Camp who have lost their parents when families fled from the former Zaire © AI * Possible indicators would include the demise of those institutions which should protect human rights, such as the collapse of state authority, withdrawal of human rights monitors, etc. A beginning for long-term work As a crisis response can by definition only be a short-term exercise, the long-term strategy to deal with any crisis country is of paramount importance. Attention of media, politicians, public, members and AI’s leadership will soon be drawn to yet another crisis. Much fear has been expressed that after a crisis response is finished, the country would be

forgotten. This should not be the case. Whereas AI’s contribution to stopping violations in the midst of a crisis might often be limited, it could be in a position to make a major contribution at a later

stage. Any crisis should motivate AI to: N develop an extensive post-crisis strategy; N raise money for the immediate crisis response as well as for long-term work; N reprioritize staffing and resources, organize the movement better and expand the program on the country. Sections need to remember this when working on a crisis. What will the long-term consequences be of a period of intense effort on a particular country or region? How will you maintain links with all those outreach contacts you worked with? How will you ensure that the public (possibly even new members), motivated to act with AI because of their outrage over gross human rights violations in a particular country, do not feel three months later that this country has been abandoned by AI? Aims of crisis response Many of the world’s worst crises are much more than human rights disasters. They are crises of civil war, collapsing states and international confusion. Expectations of AI may be too large. We cannot solve the

total crisis, so it is essential to make clear: N the specific human rights aspects of the crisis that AI can address; N what AI and the people it seeks to mobilize can contribute to the effort to resolve those human rights aspects; N any other purposes, besides addressing the specific crisis, that should be pursued. In the light of this, we should consider the level of our response. Although AI must be realistic in what it can achieve, each individual helped represents success. Nobody is obliged to succeed, but we do have an obligation to try. Our contributions fit

into the following categories: N help prevent, stop, diminish or relieve human rights violations in the target country; N focus world attention on forgotten crises; N add an authoritative voice about human rights violations in the face of rumours, exaggeration, propaganda or fragmented reporting; N provide analysis of human rights aspects in the crisis; N suggest solutions to be pursued by others; This is how a planned crisis response might look in table form. In practice, events dictate how and when responses are required and they may not coincide exactly with the schedule. Responding to Crises 75 N help prevent future violations. There are other aims to pursue which go beyond the immediate

situation. These include: N improvements in the preparedness of the international community for future crises, such as the reinforcement of intergovernmental human rights mechanisms and of early warning systems; N alerting the world to the need for preventive actions in the crisis region or elsewhere; N ending practices which may contribute to human right violations such as the export of military, security and police transfers; N creating human rights awareness, knowledge and willingness to campaign; N AI publicity, membership recruitment and fundraising to support the movement’s activities in relation to the crisis and in general. AI policy and crisis response A perfect organizational system for crisis response is useless if AI has not developed its policies relevant to crises. Issues pertinent to crises, such as military intervention, cooperation with other organizations on research, security risks for the membership and staff deployed to the field require attention. 76 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual

Clear answers are needed for these difficult issues and at times expectations of what we can do in relation to a particular crisis situation will have to be modified. Section objectives Sections should consider which aims outlined in an international strategy they are particularly well placed to pursue. Does their society’s relationship with the crisis country provide particular opportunities to influence the situation which would merit additional aims? Sections will also have to decide which aims they have the capacity to pursue. However, Sections must act speedily on the international aims that are set, otherwise the response of the movement as a whole will lose impact. This means that there is less scope for extensive discussion and consultation. Decision-making needs to become faster, more directed, and competencies need to be very clear. At the same time, those with most knowledge about a situation should play a key role in decision-making and quality control. During crises emotions run high,

the organization gets stretched and people feel stressed. That is why communication about what is expected of the movement is so important during crises. Malfunctioning communication at such times divides the movement. Good communication will unite it, motivate it and strengthen its effectiveness. It is the responsibility of everyone in the movement to communicate and respond in a timely and appropriate way. Once decisions are made we all need to stick to them. As crises often have a high media profile, no unilateral initiatives should be launched. Sections should consult the IS on their initiatives and pursue the internationally agreed objectives. Common action initiatives should be shared and supported by all in the movement. Seeking volunteers Mobilizing for action A crisis situation may require much creative thinking to find ways in which the membership can contribute to often unclear, complicated and chaotic situations. In many Sections, big or small, mostly centralized action will

take place in the early stages of a crisis because speed is vital. Centralized Section structures for crisis response therefore need to be clear. Sections need to set up structures for dealing with crises, operating in parallel with the IS.* Each Section will need to adapt the suggestions below to their local circumstances. WHAT SECTIONS CAN DO jCHECKLIST j Alert all relevant people of the crisis response, including Section staff, volunteers and some intermediate structures. j Form a crisis committee. This should include key people in the Section, such as Section director, campaign coordinator, press officer, fundraiser, administrator, relevant co-group and/or Regional Action Network (RAN) group representative. Agree who will coordinate the team and who will have final decision-making authority. j Agree one central contact person between the IS and your Section and inform the IS immediately. If possible, provide a contact number outside working hours. j Feed into strategy consultation

requests from the IS. j Consider how best to use membership structures to take action. It is important to proactively develop actions and proposals once international objectives are clear. Our experience is that while some Sections have developed creative and dynamic activities, others have been paralysed by the enormity of the problem and frustrated by the lack of The Irish Section ran an advertisement in its newsletter asking for volunteers to help during crisis response. They were looking for a team of volunteers that could be called upon at very short notice who also lived within easy reach of the office. They quickly recruited six people. * Sections committed themselves to this in Decision 4, 1993 International Council Meeting, Boston. In February 1996 the Belgian Section placed 840 pairs of shoes in front of the European Union building to symbolize those who had "disappeared" or been killed in Burundi during the Great Lakes crisis © FRANK HUYSMANS recommendations about what they

should do. j If relevant, identify at least one person at Section level able to work in English pending translation of materials. At times of crisis it will often not be possible for the IS to issue materials at short notice in languages other than English. j Agree division of other tasks within the crisis committee and review regularly. Use the committee to brainstorm for creative ideas in responding to the crisis. A set meeting slot each day should be available, even if it is not always used. j Assess administrative needs for the crisis. Good administration is vital to running a crisis response. From evaluations of past crises, the IS has identified the provision of additional administrative support as a priority. You may need help with mailings, photocopying, translations, etc. For many Sections, additional administrative support will come from volunteers. j Review existing communication plans. What mailings or newsletters to members or others are in production or planned? Do these offer opportunities for

getting across AI’s message, showing AI is acting and starting action and fundraising. Responding to Crises 77 j List relevant sources of information and possible targets for action and make

contact with them: M relevant government departments; M local UN offices which may have useful background documents; M media contacts, particularly journalists going to or returning from the crisis area; M local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) with operations in the crisis area or surrounding region. Consider how they can support AI’s efforts and vice versa. For example, some Sections have found an informal NGO working group useful for crisis situations. Others have directed journalists to other NGOs/UN offices for information on the crisis in the absence of, or to supplement, AI reports. j React to initial requests for action, information gathering and NGO liaison from the IS. Some Sections may also need to consider requests for deployment of their staff or Section contacts to work at the IS or join missions. j Consider fundraising initiatives which enable AI greater flexibility in its crisis response. Some Sections have placed special advertisements, putting AI’s position and seeking funds. Others

have found that an emergency slip of paper mentioning the crisis included in scheduled direct mail appeals has been effective in raising funds. j Consider the best way of keeping the membership informed and involved. A weekly bulletin can be useful to keep everyone in the Section up to date, but this may be costly and/or time consuming. Consider including a telephone number in the regular newsletter advertised as a "crisis hotline". This could be a recorded message, giving the latest news and ideas for action. A daily or weekly meeting to update people of developments can be a good way of establishing a shared sense of purpose, relevance and momentum. It can also provide a good opportunity for people to provide ideas and suggestions for action. 78 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Getting crisis response information to groups and members is important - and vital if you need them to act. Usual communication channels to the membership may be too slow. Decide early on who in the membership really

needs action information fast, make this a priority and look at the options for faster methods of communication. information or consultation quickly; N informs the IS of actions taken and of new Section initiatives; N mobilizes extra staff and volunteers within the Section; N initiates activities to support the international effort and facilitates the search for Section staff and volunteers to be deployed by the IS; N controls a crisis budget; N develops the crisis response capacity of the Section in an ongoing way; N participates in the development of AI’s international crisis response capacity and policy by participating in international workshops, evaluation and training exercises where appropriate. Money If at all possible, set aside money in your budget to be used only for crisis

response work: new actions, travel, translation or additional staff. Decide criteria for the use of this budget and who authorises such expenditure before you need to use it. If no extra money is available then be clear about who has the authority to cut resources in other areas. Crisis response coordinators Crisis mechanisms in Sections will need clear decision-making structures and processes to adjust priorities. These will not be uniform, as they need to suit the structure of each Section. However, where the capacity exists, appointing a crisis response coordinator could help to organize these functions. She or he should enable your Section to operate better in conjunction with the international system. A Section may feel it is justifiable to recruit someone specifically to such a post. Alternatively, it may be the campaign coordinator, the head of the campaigning department, or, in smaller Sections, the director who are used to coordinating the work of many people in the Section.

The crisis response coordinator should have the authority to make things happen or have easy access to those who may need to take immediate decisions. The list below gives some ideas on the role of this person. A crisis response

coordinator: N triggers the crisis response mechanism in the Section and coordinates the work of those involved; N is the central contact for communication with the IS; s/he will be expected to react to requests for Effectiveness demands that you are selective about who receives action material quickly. Rapid communications are usually more expensive. So, try and target your actions so that you can mobilize quickly. Groups and membership Mobilizing local groups and the wider membership during crises may often prove more difficult than activating at the central Section level. For a start, it takes time. When a crisis develops quickly and the situation changes continuously it is a challenge to keep your membership up to date with new action suggestions and background information. So, should the Section resign itself mainly to centralized action? Many Sections think not. Among their

reasons are: N displays of public dismay, outrage and action in response to human rights crises can have an enormous effect on decision-makers in your own country and, either directly or indirectly, on those committing human rights abuses; N large-scale or symbolic actions can provide enormous moral support for

victims and human rights defenders: there are times when grassroots pressure can greatly enhance and support efforts made at the Section level in lobbying, media work, outreach, etc; N not involving the wider membership risks missing important opportunities - including using the skills, knowledge and influence of AI’s

members: if members feel the crisis is being handled by "experts" at the centre they may not realize that their contribution is needed; N many of the crises will be in the

public eye: groups and members will want to do something and if an effective role for them is not found they will become increasingly frustrated and demoralized. However, it is important to get some strategic action almost immediately. Showing AI members that the crisis is being acted upon might mean changing the front cover of the newsletter or the content of an appeal letter, or including a special letter with the newsletter. A "red alert" system may be necessary. This means mobilizing certain elements of your membership to work on the crisis with an assumption that their other work is suspended for a set period. Make sure this system is clearly explained to your membership. With this in mind, do you set up new structures to deal with crises or work with those you already have? Below are some ideas. You can use a combination of some or all of them. Urgent Action network Your UA network has often received action requests on the crisis country before crisis mode is officially declared.

Over the crisis period the network is likely to be mobilized again. The very nature of the network is to respond quickly, so you probably have many rapid forms of communication with members - e-mail, telephone trees, etc. Some members of the network might be willing to sign up for crisis response activities using techniques which are similar to those they employ on UAs (letter-writing, faxing, local press work). Training needs are therefore minimal as members are already familiar with such work. Such an option would require consultation with the network and your UA coordinator(s). It is likely that if the UA network was used in this way, strict guidelines would need to be agreed to avoid overburdening the network or undermining their main work. Crisis response network Sections could consider setting up a separate pool of their groups or Responding to Crises 79 individual members who are prepared to be mobilized at short notice. (You might consider using such a pool for rapid response actions too if the

frequency and level of action was felt to undermine enthusiasm for such a project.) Experiences from setting up your UA network, particularly the practical aspects, will be valuable on such a project. You will also need to think

about: N How to encourage groups/members to get involved Working on a crisis situation is very different from working on behalf of individuals. The scale of crises can create feelings of paralysis in terms of what AI or you as an individual can achieve. N Setting realistic expectations and boundaries for the network You may find that in some cases the very mention of a crisis is attractive to your members. You will also need to consider how to keep the network motivated when there is no crisis response and how large the network should be. You will need to maintain a balance between crisis work and the ongoing program. N Communications Look at how your UA network currently

functions: the potential for rapid communication varies enormously between Sections. Tailor the expectations of the network to the speed at which it can work and the servicing that is realistic to provide. N The network’s relationship with the Section and intermediate structures Make sure that reporting lines and division of tasks between the Section, intermediate structures (such as the relevant co-group) and the network are clear. N Training and preparing the network Try not to wait until a crisis happens 80 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual before thinking about solutions to problems or providing relevant training. Being prepared will make the network’s response more effective. What will you want people to do in a crisis? Is there specialized training that could help, for example in communications technology? N Evaluating, improving and maintaining the network Make sure that any system you put in place includes a set time for evaluation. Try to do this after the system has

operated over two crises. If you want network members to give you feedback make sure you give them some. Tell them about AI’s successes regarding the crisis and how the movement intends to continue work on the particular country in the long term. Do not let the network feel that a country has just been dropped. Tell the IS crisis response team about your experiences so that lessons learned and positive experiences can be shared with others. Country/RAN coordinators and their groups You have country/regional interest and expertise on tap here so use it for crisis work. If a country coordination group exists on the crisis country, heavy demands can be made of them. At times RAN coordinators can also be in this position, particularly when there is no cogroup. Below are some tips to consider if you want this part of your membership to

take action during crises: intermediate structure, attending the same meetings, etc. c Ensure that systems for rapid communications between the Section and the group are put in place. Some Sections have thought about providing fax machines for the co-group where they do not have one or have helped connect them to e-mail. c If a particular country is classified "at risk" through the Review of Country Strategy, look at strengthening the cogroups for those countries (or try to set up a group if one does not already exist) in advance of a potential crisis. c Look at the issues that may be particularly important in a crisis, or the actions that are likely to be a priority. For example, if it is media work then identify particular journalists with an expertise and begin to establish a relationship with them. Provide them with information and briefings, etc. If it is lobbying then seek to develop a positive working relationship with departmental officials responsible for this country and try to establish

which individuals may be in a position to influence government policy. c Consider strengthening and supporting relevant RAN coordinators and groups active in that RAN. c Combine training for the RAN and co-group coordinators in crisis response work, looking at plans for both practical and strategic issues should a crisis break. c Make sure responsibilities between the RAN and co-group are clear and that the tasks are divided so the work is shared. Ensure lines of communication and responsibilities between Section and cogroup and/or RAN coordinator are agreed. If a crisis coordination committee is formed at Section level, consider how best to involve the co-group and/or RAN coordinator in this. c Familiarize RAN groups, through your RAN coordinator and RAN group training, with the demands of crisis cTIPS c If at all possible the Section should make efforts to reinforce country coordination groups covering possible crisis countries. One Section has considered a "floating resource" coordinator whose speciality would be

crisis response and who could assist country coordinators with response to an action. Another has looked at a crisis coordination group with the same function, formed and run in the same way as a country coordination group and essentially part of that response work. A fast RAN may be issued as part of the actions for the crisis. c Build in evaluation of the systems you use and the impact these are having, not just on the target country but also on other ongoing program work. During the Rwanda crisis in 1994, it was not until there was sustained media interest in the situation that many governments began to act. Understanding the relationship between your government and the media regarding the crisis will determine your most effective focus or angle. Mobilizing a largescale reaction Large-scale actions involving wide support from your members and the public can be an extremely important element of your crisis response. A way of mobilizing a large part of your membership to offer an outlet

for outrage is often as vital as targeted action from specific elements of your membership. The following are some tips on how to try and make sure AI members and others know quickly that the crisis is being acted upon. cTIPS c Run a simple announcement on radio or in newspapers (especially if you can get free or reduced-price space) saying what AI is doing and calling on people to contact AI if there is action for them join. c If you have a mass action you want people to take part in, or just want to provide more information about the crisis, give out a telephone "hotline" number at the Section, which people can call for more details. (This could be a recorded message.) c Consider forming a telephone tree to communicate that crisis mode has been declared and that members can call the Section office with ideas and receive information. For example, each member of the crisis response network could be asked to call five other local group contacts. c Groups and individual members could be encouraged to prepare a list of

organizations and inviduals they could mobilize at short notice and the ways they will do this. Responding to Crises 81 c If your Section has an AI site on the Internet, or is planning one, think of ways to use it to publicize the crisis and provide action ideas. c Make a special appeal for volunteers at the Section office if you have tasks that need doing. For some people, being involved practically in the office is as important as taking more direct action on the crisis country itself. c Start a debate immediately in your newsletter to groups and members or in meetings about how the broader membership could be involved in human rights crisis situations. Ideas from them are likely to provide you with realistic and effective answers. Campaigning techniques Campaigning techniques to react to crises are in principle the same as those we apply to other situations. However, the severity of crisis situations forces us to make more creative use of those techniques and to implement these at

speed. Much will depend on the particular situation and the analysis of what will have an impact. Some of the key areas are outlined below. Media At times of crisis the IS will try to get out at least a public holding statement to Sections within the first days of the crisis. Such a statement may not contain much news but will aim to help Sections to respond to media inquiries. The IS endeavours to have a presence in the crisis area as soon as possible. Often this will lead to possibilities for media work, initiated either directly from the region or from the IS. If the crisis is being covered in the media, journalists may be interested in a "local angle", which you can provide through campaigning actions such as vigils, demonstrations or symbolic actions. The media can become the most Lobbying 82 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual dramatic public expression of AI’s position. AI’s message, if well packaged and visualized in creative, demonstrative actions, can be conveyed

to both those responsible for violations and those who have an influence on them through the media. The media may also be a vital source of information about the crisis. Journalists are likely to have access to the latest information through news agency and correspondents’ reports. Although AI Sections cannot base actions solely on these reports, they can help to make sure that AI’s comments are relevant and up to date by providing the latest background knowledge. Make contact with journalists either travelling to or returning from the crisis area. Persuade them to include human rights issues in their reporting of the crisis. If human rights concerns are not being covered, or if reporting lacks analysis, offer to hold a briefing for journalists. Ask members to write letters to the editors calling for coverage. Offer journalists a service. Direct journalists to reliable sources of information such as UN reports or those from NGOs, in addition to AI material, particularly if AI has not been

able to issue detailed information immediately. Assess whether media reporting is pressing your government into action. Make contacts with "academics" or "experts" on the crisis country who may be interviewed by the media. Keep them informed of AI’s concerns and try to get human rights issues covered in their briefings to the media. During any crisis AI will have strong opinions about what action foreign governments, individually or combined in the UN and/or regional intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), should take. Some governments will be very willing to take action. They may have established their own crisis team in their foreign affairs department, which could be an invaluable source of information and pressure on the target country. The first steps before deciding

your strategy are: N find out the relevant official to contact; N find out what they have done about the crisis so far; N find out what they are currently doing and what they are planning to do; N ask whether they already have details of AI’s position and information; N ask if they have been discussing the situation with other governments and find out the outcomes of these discussions; N find out what action the embassy is taking on the ground in the crisis country, and what action is being taken at the IGO level; An AI mission to Tanzania during the Great Lakes crisis response attracted an impressive amount of media attention in Tanzania. Media coverage was also reported in Denmark, the USA, Austria and Canada.

From left: David Bull, Director of AIUK; Everest Mbuye, Chair of AI Tanzania; Mr Brahim, Head of the Refugee Division of the Tanzanian Ministry of Home Affairs; government official (unintroduced); Firoze Manji, former director of IS Africa program. © AI 83 AI launched the Great Lakes crisis response on 31 October 1996 after escalating conflict in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (former Zaire) © UNHCR 84 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual N find out what they believe will be the most effective action; N find out how they propose to consult/liaise with NGOs, including AI, over future actions. Sometimes it will be important to involve the membership in this lobbying. Local groups may be able to put pressure on the government to act, as may other organizations. Where letter-writing is seen as ineffective - either to the target country because of internal chaos or to your own government because of the need for speed - petitions, public events, or face to face lobbying of local

representatives can provide good vehicles for AI’s message. Sections in the same region as the crisis country will be particularly important in putting pressure on their own government and regional organizations. Where limited capacity exists, this may require the energy of most of your groups and members, as well as the Section. their work. Quickly identify which of these organizations will be particularly

relevant by: N exchanging information about the human rights situation; N sharing insights for strategies to fight abuses; N exploring how their actions (for example, towards your own government) complement AI’s work and looking at where common action could be effective. Some Sections manage to set up or participate in ad hoc groupings with other NGOs to facilitate this. Information gathered from national NGOs with a presence in the field should be shared with the IS. Contacts with such organizations will be extremely helpful both for AI’s work and their own. In addition, key Sections might be asked to take on consultation with particular regional or international NGOs. Letter-writing Where central authority is clearly defined, our traditional membership approach of letters, faxes and telephone calls will often be an important part of our response. Where state authority has broken down, or communication lines are disrupted, letter-writing and similar techniques may still be an important

channel of pressure, but directed towards the diplomatic representatives of the crisis country, including those at IGOs. Another target might be your own media or home government. Outreach During a crisis, some organizations will be more involved with issues directly related to AI’s mandate than others. It may be that these organizations are not the usual ones your Section reaches out to. These are likely to be human rights, development, and medical or other emergency relief organizations, which are often present in the field and witness what is happening. Human rights issues become an integral part of Evaluation It is essential that our crisis response work is evaluated. Evaluations might look at impact (in terms of the aims for each response), process and organization. While the crisis response team at the IS is normally responsible for initiating evaluations for the movement as a whole, the role of Sections in cooperating with such evaluations and ensuring that the process of evaluation

is mirrored at Section level cannot be stressed enough. 1 "The cost of liberty is less than the price of repression." William Edward Burghardt Du Bois

CHAPTER 5 FUNDRAISING AND CAMPAIGNING

Every campaigner knows the importance of having funds when taking action. However, seeing fundraising only as a means to an end is likely to lead to lost opportunities - for both campaigning and fundraising. In order to harness properly its potential support, AI members at every level need to recognize that both campaigners and fundraisers want action in support of human rights, and that action can be in the form of time or money. Contents What is integrated fundraising and campaigning? / 86 Why integrate? / 87 The basics of fundraising / 87 Techniques for attracting support / 88 Direct mail / 89 Advertising and promotion / 90 Telemarketing / 90 Merchandising / 90 Special events / 91 Techniques for consolidating support / 92 Direct mail / 92 Regular giving schemes / 93 Top supporters’ clubs / 93

Telemarketing / 93 Legacies and bequests / 93 Other means / 94 A sustainable strategy / 94 How integrated are your fundraising and campaigning? / 95 Help for fundraising / 96 86 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual N fundraising activities promote as much as possible the current campaigning objectives of AI; N campaigns offer a wide range of actions to cater for all AI participants and structures; N integration of fundraising and campaigning should take place systematically at the overall strategic planning stage, and in the action planning process. Planning schedules and periods for fundraising and campaigning may not coincide exactly, yet it is important that action planning (which is often shorter term) takes place within an integrated plan. The experience of many AI Sections shows that members and supporters change their method of support - from time to money and vice versa. Younger supporters may, for instance, be in a position to give time. As they become older and take on other

responsibilities they may wish to show their support mainly through financial contributions. It is important that AI has the systems in place to enable and encourage people to make these choices. The key fundraising task for Sections is to develop a base of members and donors outside of any group structure. Building such a support base may cost money at first but it is a proven path to financial self-sufficiency and raising income in any country. Finally, fundraising is

campaigning, as both activities: N aim to influence behaviour; N rely on targeting messages to different audiences; N need clear communication and calls for action; N need to make it easier to say "yes" than "no"; What is integrated fundraising and campaigning? "If only we had the money we could..." As a campaigner you have probably thought this at least once, or if not, you probably will in the future. Fundraising is an integral part of the work of a campaigning organization. In some AI Sections, campaign coordinators are also responsible for fundraising. In others, the roles are separate. In both cases, the campaign coordinator has an important role to play in creating a culture that places equal value on campaigning and fundraising and in breaking down the artificial barriers that can exist between them. AI’s most valuable resource for campaigning and fundraising is its supporters (members and financial donors). To make the most of their commitment, it is important for AI’s

different programs to plan together. Servicing and maintaining AI’s support base is the responsibility of both fundraisers and campaigners. For these reasons it is useful for campaigners to acquire at least a basic knowledge of fundraising techniques and practice. Likewise, marketing principles and techniques essential to fundraising can help campaigning work. Integrated fundraising and

campaigning means making sure that: N campaigning includes the message that AI needs support (both money and time) and provides the opportunity for people to give that support - for example, by including on leaflets coupons that ask people to join or donate funds; Professional guidance Professional marketing tools can be used successfully in campaigning. Direct marketing professionals gather evidence on such things as which colours evoke certain reactions, and whether the day the mail is delivered affects people’s willingness to respond. When making appeals, marketing professionals provide a pre-paid return envelope and a form or coupon to fill in. They add a note of urgency by writing, for example, "please reply by ... because ..." They provide an incentive to respond by writing, for instance, "all those taking part in the action at ... will receive a T-shirt at the special price of ... to help publicity..." "In some organizations fundraisers are the outsiders, the latecomers and interlopers;

their integration into the organization will reflect this attitude and can seriously affect their ability to do the job... Fundraising works best when closely integrated and reporting in at a high level. The fundraiser cannot be hived off as if they did not exist and must be valued and trusted as much as any other functional part of the organization." Sam Clarke, head of Oxfam fundraising, in The Complete Fundraising Handbook Avoid referring to those who give money as active and those who only write letters as passive (or the other way around!) In some countries, it is the fundraisers of AI Sections who most frequently contact the membership and support base. In other countries, appeals for funds are effectively the public face of AI. Raising funds from workers In 1995, following renewed outreach work in the trade union movement, the largest German trade union, IG Metall, made a donation to AI of $65,000. During AI’s 1993 campaign on the UN World Conference on Human Rights an

Australian trade union donated $A 2,000 to enable a trade unionist from Asia to attend the conference to challenge the position on human rights being put forward by some Asian governments. The Dutch Section’s approaches to companies have established schemes in which employees have agreed that a deduction from each pay packet will be paid automatically to AI. N rely on building long-term relationships with supporters; N provide opportunities for people to support AI’s human rights work; N build awareness and knowledge. literature, greeting cards featuring the images of the campaign can be sent to members, and AI reports can be sold. A key fundraising principle is that "people give to help people not organizations". This means that fundraisers need to know the campaigning information to feed into appeals - and be able to transform them into gripping personal stories so that potential supporters can feel and see the need to donate to and join AI. People take action because of a combination of emotional and

intellectual reasons - appeals to the head and heart! Why integrate? There are several reasons why AI needs to integrate fundraising and campaigning. N AI’s fundraising reinforces its reputation for independence from government or major funders, thereby contributing to AI’s campaigning credibility and effectiveness. N Integration prevents supporters and potential supporters from seeing AI as two separate organizations - one asking for money, another asking for time. N AI’s messages to both its supporters and the public need to be consistent and reinforcing. If AI is campaigning on the importance of building awareness on a particular human rights situation, this message will be strengthened or undermined by whether or not it is also carried in fundraising communications. N Integration ensures that there is a clear image of what AI stands for and does. If AI excessively uses the images of children to raise funds there is a risk that AI could be wrongly perceived as a children’s organization.

N Integration allows for multiple use of the same materials, thus saving money and providing extra resources for campaigning. For instance, campaign T-shirts can be sold, coupons can be included on campaigning Fundraising and Campaigning 87 The basics of fundraising When AI needs action the first people it turns to are its members or known supporters, whether for time or money. It follows that a successful long-term fundraising (and campaigning) strategy depends on attracting and retaining support. The basic conceptual tool is the fundraising pyramid (see diagram overleaf). The Pareto principle states that 80 per cent of income comes from 20 per cent of supporters (the top of the pyramid). A lot of fundraising energy and resources therefore go into trying to get people into the base of the pyramid - that first gesture of support through time or money. The investment of energy and resources spent on attracting supporters is then consolidated by seeking to move people up the support pyramid through

developing their knowledge of and commitment to AI. 88 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Techniques for attracting support Attracting support, whether through advertising, inserts or letters, can be expensive. AI has found that in at least some countries people often join after thinking about it seriously three or four times first. So it is essential to give people as many opportunities as possible to think about joining, taking part or donating money. The Fundraising Pyramid N Pareto principle - 80% of income comes from 20% of the donors N The warmer the relationship, the higher up the pyramid, the greater the gift.

N Outside pyramid: Events, trusts/foundations, sponsorship, licensing, door-to-door collections, company giving, etc.

N Inside pyramid: Raffles, trading, etc. LEGACIES BIG GIFTS/ CAPITAL CAMPAIGNS MONTHLY GIVING/ REPEAT PAYMENT PROGRAMS APPEALS MEMBERSHIP OR FIRST DONATION

Key questions: N How much does a new member/donor cost to acquire? N How many are you budgeting for in the next year - a 25% increase? N How long do they stay? How much do they give over their lifetime with you? N How much do you spend on servicing them? N Does your magazine go out four or six times a year - not more surely? It is also essential to have in place systems for recording the details of people who join - or who are interested in joining - so that you can continue to communicate with them. This can be a simple card index system or a computer database. The main techniques of

attracting support are: Supporters and the public should not detect any difference in value or different response when they contribute time or money. N direct mail N advertising and promotion N telemarketing N merchandise N special events

Direct mail: the essentials Direct mail is the simple art of sending letters or "appeals" to your supporters asking for additional donations, or to potential supporters asking them to join or to donate money. It was the perfecting of this fundraising technique, above all others, that was responsible for AI’s rapid growth in the 1980s. A direct mail pack usually consists of

five elements: N An outer envelope. This often carries an intriguing message and picture to ensure it is opened. It will have a window for the address, a return address and the discount mark. In many societies national postal services offer substantial discounts for bulk mailings. N The letter itself. This should read like a letter from a friend. It should be quite clear about asking the reader to give money or join. Let them know which problem their money will alleviate, preferably using real examples. The letter should have a

positive tone: it is persuading people they can do something.The first paragraph is read more than anything else. There should be a note of urgency at the end which leads the reader to fill out the reply coupon. Opinions differ greatly on how long a

letter should be: like everything else, test. N A reply coupon. This can be separate or a tear-off strip on the letter. It should have the person’s name and address on it, which will show through the outer

envelope. It should re-state the request: "Yes, I would like to join/donate to Amnesty International..." Let the reader know how much you want and allow them to add an extra donation. A line of tick boxes with different amounts greatly increases income (people usually pick the middle box). Allow people to pay any way they want. Never

let people just ask for information: this wastes time and money, and fewer people join or give. Code the coupon so you can evaluate its success. N An additional leaflet. This allows you to show pictures (which can be worth a thousand words), to provide feedback on past campaigning, or to give a more comprehensive picture of AI’s work. N The return envelope. This should be pre-paid with your address and the name of the person who signed the letter - and who will sign the thank you letter sent for each donation. The envelope should be large enough to take a cheque. Make sure all campaigning materials, such as leaflets and posters, include a coupon for joining AI. Direct mail Direct mail is one of AI’s most successful techniques for attracting new support in countries with inexpensive and efficient postal systems. As printing and postage costs can be quite high, direct mail is most likely to be cost-effective when it is carefully targeted at people believed to be most likely to support AI - such as

plain members of organizations who might be sympathetic to AI’s concerns. Sometimes it is possible to exchange a mailing with these organizations. The other organization mails your letter to its supporters and you mail their letter to AI supporters. In other situations, it is possible to rent or buy mailing lists. In some countries there are "list-brokers" who do mailings. Fundraising and Campaigning 89 Direct mail can also attract support through member-get-member schemes. Either your members ask their friends to join or they send you likely names and addresses for you to mail directly. (The UK Section has a helpful list of guidelines on the conduct of mailing exchanges with other organizations.) Send direct mail appeals to your members and donors at least four times a year. The main NGOs and AI Sections do this about six times a year. Your members will feel involved and appreciate your prompt thank you letters. Response rates to existing supporters range between 6 and 12 per cent. Break-even costs vary substantially

but may be at about 2 per cent response from cold lists. From exchange Telemarketing 90 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual mailings you may get up to 5 per cent. The expectation in many organizations is not that the first mailing will make a profit but that over the period each new person can be expected to stay with the organization they will contribute a certain amount. Telemarketing is an established technique used in market research and selling in many societies. Many charitable and campaigning organizations also use it, as do a number of AI Sections. It involves telephoning supporters or potential supporters and persuading them to make a commitment to extra or continuing support. It is a very direct and personal way of communicating AI’s need for support, and there is a much higher positive response rate than there is to direct mail, although the costs are higher. Some Sections have used this technique to successfully renew support from lapsed members. Telephone companies can supply

telephone numbers (probably for a fee) or they can be collected on membership forms and stored on databases. The Norwegian Section has perhaps the most successful telemarketing program and has produced a guide (available in English) on running a telemarketing operation. Advertising and promotion Advertising in the national press, radio, television or cinema can be effective, although it is very expensive. It is important to make it easy for people to respond to the advertisements by including a clear coupon or telephone number. The best way of evaluating the effectiveness of your advertising is to check the number of responses. If possible, test before you invest. You can do this by finding out how successful other organizations have been using similar techniques, by researching industry standards, or by running a small test before embarking on the major project. Inserting membership/donor leaflets in magazines or newspapers can be effective, although carefully targeting the audience and the appeal

can make the difference between success and failure. Look at previous results. Magazines and newspapers may be able to provide you with market research results on the audience they reach, which can help you decide by matching that audience profile with the characteristics of your existing supporters. You can also place membership leaflets in stores, cafés or restaurants. Raffles have always been a popular way to raise money for AI. This raffle book produced by the UK Section is attractively designed and highlights the purpose of the fundraising exercise. Merchandising Merchandising - anything from ferry rides in Sierra Leone to greeting cards in Iceland - provides a valuable part of AI’s income and another opportunity for people to show their support for AI. In some Sections, particularly where direct mail is inappropriate, it has become a significant source of income. Much merchandise simply promotes AI by including the candle or the name on products such as pens, T-shirts or wash-bags. Some simply

include a message that the profits will go to support AI’s work. In other cases T-shirts promote specific campaign messages. Merchandising can be a good way of reaching new audiences and cTIP Prepare some standard recruiting supporters. Again, there coupons you can use easily needs to be some evidence that a in different publications. market exists for a product. AI’s membership may be a large enough market, but it can be best to look beyond these limits - and not to assume that AI’s members share the same tastes. Distribution of merchandise can be through AI’s local groups for sale on stalls, through advertisements placed in AI’s and other organizations’ newsletters, or through a catalogue. A marketing and distribution program for AI documents can also be a useful way of raising funds and spreading AI’s message. Public libraries, school and university libraries, government departments and specialist bookshops may be interested in taking all or some of AI’s publications. Special events

Activities often associated with fundraising are special events such as music concerts, theatre performances, art awards, auctions and street appeals. There is a saying for special event

fundraising: "The first time is for making mistakes, the second to make money." For large events it is therefore strongly advised that professional assistance is sought before any decisions are made about investing significant resources or going ahead with the event. A number of AI Sections have experience of special event fundraising. Their advice should be sought, and it is likely to be cheap! Regular special events can be a valuable part of a fundraising strategy and a fairly reliable source of funds. They can also be a publicity vehicle for high profile figures to show their support. It is usually best to stick with Fundraising and Campaigning 91 proven money-makers rather than trying things that are totally new. Even when successful in raising money, large special events do not have a good record for AI or other organizations in attracting long-term support. Special events are high-risk and involve considerable investment with no guarantee on the level of return or income. The more ambitious the plan,

the higher the risks. Many organizations have lost money even in events with very popular performers. High profile events take on a momentum of their own that becomes unstoppable. Because they are high investment and high risk, with few if any long-term benefits, they should not form the core of any fundraising program. Risks can be kept to a minimum by

the following steps: N be clear about the audience you are seeking to attract - an impressive list of performers can fail to attract because their appeal is to too many diverse audiences; N sell as many tickets as possible in advance; N use venues with established audiences and get the owners to undertake the promotion of the event and underwrite costs; N set a budget and profit goal before

committing to the event: over-estimate expenses, under-estimate income and look at the time involved for staff and volunteers; Good and bad targeting

Good: In 1989 the Australian Section mailed letters to 20,000 supporters of an overseas aid agency and received an excellent response rate of over 10 per cent. A good response would have been 2 per cent. The appeal featured countries and issues believed to be of interest to these supporters.

Bad: In the same year the Australian Section mailed letters to a thousand mail-order purchasers of woollen under-blankets. One person responded. It was difficult to know how to interest this audience in AI’s concerns. 92 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual N calculate break-even point - how many tickets need to be sold to cover costs? N check the legalities - licensing regulations, health and safety standards, public liability insurance, etc; N keep careful records of income, expenditure and organization to make a repeat performance easier; N publicize the event (cost publicity into your budget); N investigate other possibilities for making income from the same event, such as having collectors asking for donations, selling T-shirts, etc. Special event fundraising can, however, have many benefits. They can bring the community into contact with AI, provide AI with a vehicle for public and media promotion, and be fun for all involved. These are side-benefits though. The primary aim must still be

to raise funds! By and large, in special event fundraising small is beautiful. Events such as dinners, film or video evenings, and musical performances can be an important source of funds for AI groups. They can also increase AI’s profile and the profile of a campaign in the community. Campaign coordinators can encourage groups to organize small

events with a specific campaign theme: N During a country campaign fundraising dinners can be organized that feature the food of the country. N Events can be billed as for the country campaign and the campaign slogan and logo can appear on all literature and publicity associated with the event. N A special concert evening featuring the target country’s music can be organized. Raising funds while recruiting The New Zealand Section conducted a membership recruitment campaign by telephone in 1995. Some 46,000 people were called and asked to donate $NZ 25. Of these, 1,768 new supporters were recruited, making an average donation of $NZ 27.11. They believe that asking for a specific amount of money contributed to the success of the campaign. N A raffle can be run at events with prizes originating from the targeted country. Do be careful, however, not to give the impression that all the money from that event will go to that campaign exclusively (unless it really will). Remind groups to evaluate the event -

what worked and what they would do differently next time. The AI Canadian Section (Englishspeaking branch) have produced an excellent and comprehensive guide to organizing special events which they are happy to supply to others on request. Techniques for consolidating support The principal way of building commitment to AI and for moving supporters up through the support pyramid is regular communication, including personal contact. This means reporting back to supporters on the results of campaigning, including good news stories of people being released. Let people know they are helping to make a difference! The following techniques are used in developing regular communication with a support base of thousands of

supporters: N Direct mail N Regular giving schemes N Top supporters clubs N Telemarketing N Legacies and bequests Direct mail Direct mail is an important technique for renewing and building support. Once people have joined or made a donation they are then encouraged to give again to appeals. This is generally most effective when mailings are integrated with campaigning - when they are based on specific and current campaigns. It is worth testing to see whether these appeals will be enhanced by adding an action element such as a Even when advertising agencies offer to donate all labour and services free of charge, the cost of materials and equipment for making television, cinema and radio advertising can quickly absorb large amounts of resources. Moreover, not paying for services can limit the control you have over what the agency produces. Even with months of preparation, outlay and organization, it is not until around 80 per cent of tickets have been sold that a concert moves into

profit - and then becomes a fundraiser. There is increasing cooperation between the merchandising programs of Sections. Designs for some products, such as cards and T-shirts, are shared. In preparing for any major campaign consult other Sections, such as the French, Dutch, Australian or UK, which have large merchandising programs, to see whether they have a suitable design you may be able to use. postcard to be sent to a government. This testing is usually done by putting the card in half the mailing and coding the return coupons so that you can see which half responds with more donations. Again, the campaign needs personalizing through the use of moving case histories. Some AI Sections successfully mail their supporters for donations six times a year. Reasonable response rates range from 6 to 14 per cent for any one mailing. These appeals also provide an opportunity to receive feedback on what the organization has achieved and to develop supporters’ knowledge of and commitment to AI.

Each donation should be acknowledged - if possible by a thank you letter. Some organizations successfully use the thank you letter to seek a further donation. Some make a thank you telephone call in response to large donations. Regular giving schemes Direct mail can also be used to encourage supporters to give on a regular basis - preferably automatically. It represents a significant increase in cost-effectiveness, saving on administration, etc. This level of commitment represents another step up the donor pyramid. AI’s experience is that people who gave perhaps a $40 annual donation may be willing to give $10 a month - tripling their donation. When this is done by automatic financial transfer, or deduction from credit cards, it is usually allowed to run on from year to year, providing a stable source of income at low cost. Top supporters’ clubs To encourage supporters to take the step up to the next level of the donor pyramid, some AI Sections and other organizations create special schemes to

encourage people to upgrade their support. These are sometimes known as donor clubs like "Partners of Conscience", where people may pay much more each month or year. It is sensible to give these people Fundraising and Campaigning 93 recognition, which they appreciate. This could be a smart lapel badge or a meeting with the director. It may simply be a telephone call to say thank you personally - or the gift of an AI calendar at the end of the year. When the time comes for a major item to be purchased (such as computer equipment) it is to these people that the Section can turn. Telemarketing Sections have used telemarketing to recruit people into special regular and higher giving programs, as well as to renew support. Organizations have found that integrated with direct mail, it is a very effective technique, i.e. mail, telephone call, mail. Legacies and bequests At the top of supporters’ pyramid are legacies, sometimes called bequest donations. This is a huge source of revenue and many Sections have been

saved from financial disaster by the receipt of a timely bequest. There is a complex correlation between actively seeking funds in this way and receiving them, but supporters do need to know this is an option open to them. Most importantly, as supporters have climbed the pyramid they have been developing a closer and closer relationship with AI. People will not move up the pyramid unless they feel that AI is meeting their needs. Our supporters have options and can easily give to other organizations if we are not dealing with the problems they perceive as important or not keeping them informed about our concerns in a way they appreciate. So, it is crucial to A night for AI The Irish Section held a very successful concert when the performer Phil Collins offered to play an extra night on his tour just for AI. All his other concerts were sold out, providing a good indication of demand. All the major organization had already been done, and the remainder was undertaken by the promoter rather than AI.

94 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Database fundraising An effective way of communicating with the membership is through a computer database that allows the recording of basic information such as name and address, how and when people first made a contribution, and how much they have donated. A database makes many forms of fundraising possible. Other means The US Section raises considerable funds through trusts and annuities. Many tax systems offer incentives to donate to organizations such as AI. It is worth investigating. There are a number of commercial computer database packages available, although some AI Sections have developed their own. It is possible to seek advice on this from the IS. develop our supporters’ understanding of human rights issues and how AI’s work is meeting human rights objectives. are quickly stripped away by continuing high fixed costs such as staff. When this is about to happen, funds become tight and Sections that should be investing extra money in fundraising to regain

their lost momentum find it hard to take this money "away from" their program activity. Understanding the mutual dependence of fundraising and campaigning can make it easier to regain their position. Developing a fundraising strategy is much like developing a campaigning strategy. Review your current situation by answering some basic questions. A sustainable strategy AI needs to plan all its activities in one plan, which can then be implemented by different (specialized) staff and volunteers. Integrated planning at this stage can ensure there is coordinated timing of all activities for maximum effect. One of the key pitfalls in fundraising is to build an organization on a very narrow base of one or two income sources. One day these will stop. This can happen quite suddenly, especially in today’s volatile environment. A good fundraising strategy should seek to build up a diversified range of fundraising activities and make sure that they are sustainable, not just one-off. Plan the development of your

structure carefully so that over the next few years you know which techniques you will maintain, which you will drop and which innovations you will develop. A key part of this strategy is knowing what resources you will need over the coming years in terms of funds for fundraising and people to do the work. Unstructured growth usually turns into unstructured collapse. When growth stops, small reserves Five steps to success N Promotion of AI and recruitment of supporters N Welcoming new supporters and providing options for involvement with or support of AI N Renewing support N Maintaining commitment gQUESTIONS g What is your current mix of fundraising activities? What is the cost effectiveness of each? g What proportion of income comes from the membership? What are the costs of different fundraising activities? How long do people stay members? Are you replacing those who leave? g Can these be reduced without negatively affecting income? What is the scope for developing existing

programs? g Are new programs needed? g Is there a natural AI constituency to which it would be best to direct appeals? g What are the barriers to growth, such as lack of communication infrastructure, lack of a banking system, negative public image of AI, government restrictions? N Efficient administrative procedures The AI Visa card was launched in conjunction with The Co-operative Bank in the UK. AI received £0.20 in every £100 spent with the card and a £5 donation with every new account. If your campaigning is in the news, a letter to supporters featuring the same campaign will build on their N Build on what you have and use existing awareness and is more likely to give them the feeling of being part of a the cost to income ratio of fundraising programs. Some forms of fundraising such as a regular donation scheme may successful organization, and therefore more likely to maintain their support. g What resources (time and money) are available for developing fundraising programs?

A SWOT analysis as outlined in Chapter 1 can help this exercise, as can several other steps. N Agree specific changes needed. Develop a database, include appeal letters in members’ newsletters, build AI’s image in the community, supply fundraising advice to groups, involve fundraisers in the action planning process. N Plan to implement the change. Who is to do what by when? N Monitor and evaluate. Are programs working as effectively as they can? Why did one activity fail - or perhaps fail in one place and succeed in another? one program or activity to strengthen another. It is important to constantly review Fundraising and Campaigning 95

have a ratio of 1:10, special event fundraising is more likely to have a ratio

of 1:2. An initial mailing to potential supporters or an advertisement may

have a ratio of 1:0.75 (but would move

into a ratio of 1:4 over a period of a year as these new supporters give additional donations). AI has a duty to those it works for, and its own supporters, to keep costs to a minimum. Increasingly there is also critical scrutiny of these costs from the outside. If costs cannot be justified then this can have a damaging impact on AI’s image and effectiveness How integrated are your fundraising and campaigning? . jCHECKLIST j Are fundraisers and campaigners involved in the Section’s strategic planning process? j Is there a call to join or donate on every possible piece of campaigning material? j Do your campaign posters have your address and telephone number on them? j Does your fundraising material feature current campaign concerns? j Does your fundraising and campaigning material portray a consistent image? j Have you included practical fundraising suggestions and advice in your campaign kits for local groups? j Are you raising your campaigning profile at the important times of the year

for fundraising appeals? j Are you making fundraising appeals to take advantage of a high campaigning profile or after human rights violations have received wide publicity? A small item such as a bookmark can carry a campaign message to readers and provide a coupon to recruit new members. 96 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual j Are people responsible for fundraising involved in action planning discussions, brainstorming, etc? fundraising knowledge is to join six local NGOs, charities or fundraising organizations, receive their mailings and appeals for funds and test out their ideas for AI. Help for fundraising Help is provided by the IS by the Director of International Fundraising. Also at hand is the Fundraising Working Group (FWG), a specialist sub-committee of AI’s International Executive Committee. The FWG has a representative who covers each region and a resource group of fundraisers who provide a variety of expertise. All these people can be called upon for fundraising advice and assistance via

telephone, fax or e-mail and there are some funds for visits to Sections. The FWG publish Direct Communication, a fundraising newsletter. Let the FWG chairperson know if you want to be on the circulation list. The FWG encourages fundraisers to attend AI fundraising workshops and can tell you where and when the nearest workshop to you will be held. The simplest way to acquire good "Non-governmental organizations have a responsibility to maintain their vigilance over the system they have helped to establish in the legitimate expectation that it can and should be made to serve the cause of human rights and fulfil the aspirations set by the UN Charter." Helena Cook, former director of the Legal and International Organizations Program (LIOP) at the International Secretariat 1

CHAPTER 6 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDS AND ORGANIZATIONS

International human rights standards and agreements make governments accountable, both individually to each other and through regional and global intergovernmental

organizations (IGOs). AI and other organizations have an important responsibility to make sure they do. IGOs and international human rights standards are of fundamental importance to AI's campaigning on themes and as part of specific country strategies. AI constantly refers to international standards and seeks to strengthen and improve them. It also lobbies international organizations to promote and protect human rights and seeks to build the capacity and effectiveness of their human rights work. International human rights law / 98 Global and regional human rights standards / 98 Standards on specific subjects / 99 UN institutions dealing with human rights / 99 Regional intergovernmental organizations / 104 The importance of intergovernmental organizations / 105 The importance of international human rights standards / 106 Strengthening the international human rights framework / 107 Using the international human rights framework / 107 98 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual International human

rights law The 1993 UN World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna reaffirmed that states must respect all rights in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The UDHR and other international instruments at the UN and regional IGO level specify governments' responsibilities for the protection and promotion of human rights, domestically and internationally. The Vienna Conference also reaffirmed that human rights are not simply the domestic concern of individual nation states. Treaties such as the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment include obligations on governments to prevent and end human rights violations and create mechanisms for international monitoring, reporting and accountability. The specific rights enshrined in the UDHR have been given a more detailed and often legal character in several international and regional standards. These standards take the form of declarations, treaties, protocols, and other instruments. They

provide a legal framework for protecting human rights worldwide. Some of these standards are designed to protect people from abuses such as discrimination, genocide, torture or slavery. Others are meant to safeguard members of specific groups whose rights are often violated, such as refugees, women and children. Others address concerns such as freedom of information, hunger and the peaceful use of technology. Many of these standards are legally binding and mechanisms have been established for their enforcement. Only some of these standards, or specific articles in them, relate to AI's mandate. These are useful to include when making appeals. However, AI members are not expected to be expert in these standards, although it is essential to have a general understanding of the standards that relate to our work. Global and regional human rights standards N Universal Declaration of Human

Rights: adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948. It is not a treaty but most of its guarantees have become so authoritative that they are considered binding on all states as customary international law. N International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

(ICESCR): in force from 1976 and protects, for example, the right to form a trade union and the rights to food, health and education. N International Covenant on Civil

and Political Rights (ICCPR): in force from 1976 and protects, for example, the right not to be arbitrarily deprived of life or to be tortured; the rights to a fair trial, freedom of expression, freedom of association and assembly; and the right not to suffer discrimination. The (first) Optional Protocol recognizes the right of an individual claiming to be a victim of the violation of the ICCPR to make a complaint to the UN Human Rights Committee. The Second Optional Protocol abolishes the death penalty. N American Convention on Human

Rights: came into force in 1978 and protects mainly civil and political rights. N African Charter on Human and

Peoples' Rights: came into force in 1986 and protects civil and political rights, as well as some economic, social and cultural rights plus some group rights (such as the right to selfdetermination). Nearly all members of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) are parties to this treaty. N European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and

Fundamental Freedoms: came into force in 1953 and protects civil and political rights. When a state becomes a member of the Council of Europe it must become a state party to this treaty. Useful terms in international law

N Declaration: A general statement of principles that, while not necessarily legally binding, may have considerable authority.

N Convention/Covenant: A formal, legally binding treaty or agreement between sovereign states.

N Protocol: A formal, legally binding agreement between sovereign states that is normally a supplement to another treaty or agreement. N Ratification or

accession: A decision by a sovereign state to adhere to a treaty or agreement and to be bound by its provisions.

N State Party: A country whose government has ratified or acceded to a treaty or agreement and is legally bound to follow its provisions.

N Signature: Expression by a sovereign state of its intention to refrain from acts that would defeat the purpose of a treaty or agreement, and at some future date to ratify or accede to the treaty. IMPORTANT TIMES OF THE YEAR March/April cTIPS Standards on specific subjects Lobbying around the current session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. AI strengthens its presence in Geneva during the Commission. Experience has shown that close contact with Sections can enable important lastminute lobbying and campaigning to be done with governments. August/September Lobbying for the forthcoming session of the UN General Assembly. September/October Lobbying for the following year's UN Commission on Human Rights session. The UN Commission on Human Rights meets for six weeks from mid-March. Many governments begin discussing their positions on countries and issues on the Commission Agenda from the preceding September/October. There are a variety of treaties and other standards which protect particular

vulnerable groups or particular abuses. Some examples of such specific

standards are: N Selected UN treaties M Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (came into force in 1987); M Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1981); M Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990); M 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1954). N Selected UN Declarations and other non-treaty standards M Safeguards guaranteeing protection of the rights of those facing the death penalty (adopted in 1984); M Declaration on the Right to Development (1986); M Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment (1988); M Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials (1990); M Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (1992); M Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993). Example of the process of a strategy on an AI theme N Analysis finds gaps in existing human rights standards or a lack of a mechanism

to enforce the standards. N Consult experts, other NGOs, survivors and agree on reforms needed. N Campaign to persuade governments to agree to reform and strengthen standards and mechanisms. International Human Rights Standards and Organizations 99 UN institutions dealing with human rights N Commission on Human Rights The Commission on Human Rights is the main UN human rights body. It can deal with any aspect of human rights. It is an intergovernmental - or political - body, which means that the diplomats at Commission meetings represent their governments. The Commission consists of 53 states that are elected for four years. It meets in Geneva for six weeks every year in March-April. NGOs such as AI that have consultative status with the UN may be present during the Commission and make written and oral statements. This access allows NGOs to lobby governments at the Commission. The type of action the Commission can

take includes: M Passing a resolution of condemnation or concern. The Commission can call for concrete action by the government concerned. This might include requesting the state to invite a thematic mechanism, such as the Special Rapporteur on torture, to carry out an investigation. A resolution can represent strong criticism. M Appointment of a special rapporteur (on a country). The rapporteur is mandated to investigate human rights violations in a country and report back to the next session of the Commission and recommend action. This is agreed by a resolution and is the strongest action that can be taken. The Commission is composed of government representatives and can find it difficult to muster the political will to act. It also lacks powers of enforcement. Governments go to great N Campaign to hold government accountable to stronger standard through new, effective mechanism. N Evaluate and analyse effectiveness, suggest improvements, etc. This is an ongoing process which from beginning to end can take many years.

lengths to avoid public sanction, indicating that this public comment can be an effective source of pressure. 100 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual M Establishing thematic experts (special rapporteurs and working groups). Over the years the Commission has appointed individual experts (special rapporteurs) or groups of experts (working groups) to focus on particular themes. There are thematic experts (or mechanisms) on subjects such as torture, extrajudicial executions, "disappearances", arbitrary detention, violence against women, independence of the judiciary, religious intolerance, the internally displaced, and on development. Most carry out on-site visits to investigate abuses, if a government allows them into the country. These reports are public and can contain detailed recommendations for reform of law and practice. Some of the experts also send urgent humanitarian appeals in individual cases on the basis of reports they receive from NGOs such as AI. In "The international human rights

system is fundamental to Amnesty's credibility and legitimacy. The human rights treaties and other standards provide it with a consistent and uniform code by which to assess every government and a defence against accusations of bias or the imposition of personal standards or values. This is imperative for an organization that sets great store by its independence and impartiality." Helena Cook, former director of LIOP at the IS Useful websites

For the UN:

http://www.un.org For an index to all UN organizations (French and

English):

http://www.unsystem.org For the European Court of Human Rights (French and

English): www.dhcour.coe.fr International Human Rights Standards and Organizations 101 their annual reports submitted to the Commission, they also make general recommendations about how the world should tackle the particular violations. AI often argues that the Commission must take action when its own thematic (or country) experts expose violations in a country. The experts' reports are available from UN information offices around the world and from the UN Internet websites (see margin). The IS, and not Sections, approach the experts directly. M Drafting new human rights standards or carrying out studies. Many of the UN human rights treaties or other standards are drafted by working groups of the Commission in which government representatives negotiate the text. In most cases NGOs are also able to speak and participate in the working groups. Often, the initiative for creating a new standard has come from NGOs who find a state to take it up and introduce it into the UN system. Sometimes, the Commission will ask for

studies to be made on particular subjects before it makes a decision. M Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities Members of the Commission also elect AI's work with intergovernmental organizations

AI's work with IGOs aims to: N stop or prevent violations in individual cases (such as the large number of cases AI sends to thematic and other mechanisms); N stop or prevent patterns of violations in countries; N make human rights law a more powerful tool for the human rights movement (standard-setting), and strengthen the capacity of IGO institutions to protect human rights (institution-building); N influence the international discourse on human rights (such as on the universality of human rights).

In addition, AI's work with IGOs: N emphasizes that human rights are the proper subject of international scrutiny and that individual governments are accountable for their actions; N ensures that individuals and NGOs are recognized as part of the international community and have a legitimate role in scrutinizing government action on the promotion and protection of human rights; the 26 experts who make up the Sub- Commission. Unlike the Commission, these experts are meant to be independent and not represent any government, although in practice how independent they are varies a great deal. The Sub-Commission's main work is to study themes, such as impunity, states of emergency or compensation for victims. Some of their studies lead to the Commission adopting new standards or setting up a new thematic mechanism. NGOs can observe and speak at the Sub-Commission as at the Commission. The Sub-Commission meets in Geneva every August. N The High Commissioner for Human Rights The leading figure in human rights in

the UN is the High Commissioner for Human Rights, who is appointed by the UN Secretary-General for a four-year term. Mary Robinson, the former President of Ireland, became the High Commissioner in September 1997. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, in Geneva, provides expert and administrative support for the human rights program of the UN, including the treaty bodies, thematic N provides further opportunities for dialogue with governments; N enables AI to offer expertise and advice to other NGOs without the same resources or access. 102 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual mechanisms, human rights field operations and the Commission on Human Rights. N Treaty monitoring bodies Several human rights treaties have a group of experts (called a treatymonitoring body) that monitors whether the states parties are implementing their obligations under the treaty. Most of them meet two or three times a year in Geneva or New York for about two weeks. The experts are elected by the states that have

ratified the particular treaty and are not meant to represent any government. The High Commissioner can be very influential if she speaks out against human rights violations in particular countries or in support of new human rights standards. She can visit countries to persuade the government to cooperate with the UN and end violations. She can take practical steps like offering the government technical and advisory services to help change law and train officials or set up human rights field operations, such as those in Burundi, Rwanda and Colombia. Every four or five years states parties have to submit a report to the experts showing how they have implemented the particular treaty. The treaty body looks at the report, questions government representatives in a meeting and makes conclusions (usually in writing) about what changes the government should make. NGOs such as AI often provide detailed information and advice to guide the experts in their questioning. If the recommendations are good, NGOs can

The High Commissioner plays an important role in making sure that other parts of the UN that deal with development, humanitarian assistance, peace-keeping or women's affairs, integrate human rights into their own work rather than leaving it all for her office. Working for a new human rights mechanism An example of AI's impact was the campaign to establish the position of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in the lead-up to and following the UN World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993. 1992 AI provided an analysis of the shortcomings of the existing human rights system and made proposals for reform, including the creation of the post of High Commissioner. October 1992 The proposal was formally launched at the World Conference preparatory meeting in Africa and AI started to work with other NGOs to build support for it. January 1993 Sections and the IS lobbied Latin American governments and the proposal was adopted by the Latin American preparatory conference. January to June 1993

Sections lobbied home governments using lobbying meetings, public campaigning activities, outreach to other NGOs and media to gain support for the proposal. June 1993 AI’s lobbying in capital cities and directly at the UN, and campaigning, together with pressure from other NGOs and key governments secured support for the idea in the final Vienna Declaration. December 1993 Intensive lobbying and media work resulted in the vote to create the High Commissioner for Human Rights by the UN General Assembly in New York. Some members of the Commission on Human Rights change annually. It is important to know when your government is a member as this is likely to give it added influence in relation to particular human rights situations. AI's worldwide theme campaign against torture and the steady campaigning of the membership was a major factor in the adoption of the UN Convention against Torture. The campaigning involved AI local groups working on individual cases, letterwriting to governments,

Section campaigners doing lobbying and media work in relation to their governments, and IS staff lobbying and providing

expertise at many meetings. Left: Eleanor Roosevelt with a copy of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. She was the chairperson of the committee that

drafted the declaration. Right: An AI appeal for the release of all prisoners of conscience

being presented at the UN in 1983: ( left to © UN then campaign for them to be implemented. NGOs often also expose that many of the states parties submit their reports very late or not at all. right) Javier Pérez to Cuéllar, former Secretary-General of the UN, Thomas Hammerberg, former Secretary General of AI, and Suriya Wickremasinghe, former chairperson of AI. AI's major theme campaigns have often focused on the international human rights framework as being most relevant to challenging a worldwide pattern of violations and the inadequacies of the international response to them. Consequently a common aim of such campaigns is to build momentum for new or stronger standards and mechanisms. International Human Rights Standards and Organizations 103 Increasingly the treaty bodies are taking action in between sessions to react to urgent situations, including calling for emergency reports or putting immediate pressure on a government. Some of the treaty bodies also make general comments about

how their treaty should be interpreted- these can be influential in understanding what the obligations mean in practice.

Some of the treaty bodies are: M The Human Rights Committee has 18 experts and supervises the ICCPR. It meets three times a year in either Geneva or New York. Where states have ratified the (first) Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, individuals can make complaints to the Committee about violations by their government of their rights under the ICCPR. M The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights also has 18 members and supervises the ICESCR. There is no right of individual petition, although there is growing pressure for this right to be created. M The Committee against Torture has 10 members and supervises the Convention against Torture. It meets twice a year in Geneva. AI is campaigning for a new body, which might be linked to this Committee, which would inspect places of detention throughout the world and make recommendations to governments about how to prevent torture. M The Committee on the Rights of the Child monitors the Convention on the Rights of the Child. It has been

one of the most innovative committees, pioneering closer relations with NGOs and making some on-site visits to states parties. M The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has 23 experts and meets in New York to supervise the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. M The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination has 18 experts who monitor the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. N Other political bodies in the UN Other political bodies of the UN also deal with human rights in different ways. The General Assembly, which is composed of all 185 member states of the UN and meets in New York, discusses all the work of the UN, from development and arms control to drug abuse, refugees, law of the sea and outer space. One of its committees (the Third Committee) deals specifically with human rights. The General Assembly can condemn violations, appoint expert investigators or even set up field

operations. It was the General Assembly that created the High Commissioner for Human Rights, appointed an expert to look at children in armed conflict © AI 104 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Example of an AI IGO strategy on a country - Sri Lanka N In the 1980s AI researched and documented systematic "disappearances" in Sri Lanka. N AI and other NGOs submitted up to 12,000 individual cases to the UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, which described this as the largest number of cases from any country in its reports to the UN Commission on Human Rights. N AI and other NGOs campaigned for the Commission to take action because its own experts on "disappearances" had documented such a serious problem. The Commission called on the government to accept on-site visits by the Working Group. N The Working Group (and AI) visited Sri Lanka and made detailed recommendations for change. N AI and other NGOs campaigned at the following sessions of the Commission for political pressure on government to implement recommendations - many were

implemented. N AI’s research showed that the changes contributed to a dramatic drop in the number of "disappearances". and worked on the proposal for a permanent international criminal court. NGOs cannot speak or participate in the General Assembly. The role of the Security Council is to maintain international peace and security - i.e. to prevent or end wars. It has five permanent, and 10 rotating, members. The Security Council says that it does not deal with human rights. But in practice much of its work is related to human rights - including condemning violations of the laws of war, setting up a peace-keeping operation that has a human rights component or creating the two ad hoc international criminal tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. N UN specialized and other agencies The UN has several agencies with decentralized field operations throughout the world that are increasingly dealing with human rights issues. The work of the Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees has

always included the protection of refugees and asylum-seekers from being returned to countries where they may face persecution. It also provides food, health care and other practical assistance to refugees. The UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) are increasingly recognizing that their work should include helping to build institutions in a country that guarantee the rule of law and using their voice to promote adherence to human rights standards that support their development work. UNICEF, for example, expressly says that it works to ensure implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. AI's work increasingly includes developing working relations with such agencies. You can find out more about any operations these agencies may have in your country from their offices in your country. Regional intergovernmental organizations AI devotes considerable resources to working on regional IGOs as well as on the UN. Africa, the Americas and Europe all have regional IGOs with

human rights bodies. Although the Middle East and Asia do not have similar regional human rights institutions, they do have regional organizations which are worth targeting to take up human rights issues as part of their political, security and economic work. The Organization of African Unity (OAU),the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Ian Martin ( right), former Secretary General of AI, at the UN during a meeting organized by AI to promote ratification of international human rights treaties, 1988. International Human Rights Standards and Organizations 105 the Council of Europe, and the Organization of American States (OAS) all have intergovernmental or political bodies that meet at least annually and lead the work of the organization. They are often AI's principal targets, as they have the power to bring human rights more into the IGOs’ work. All but the OSCE have at least some way for individuals to make complaints about violations by their governments, with varying degrees of

effectiveness. The human rights courts in the OAS and Council of Europe systems are the most highly developed. The experts on the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, both of which report to political bodies in the OAU and OAS respectively, have quite wide-ranging powers to investigate country situations by visiting the country and making reports. The Council of Europe and the OSCE also have parliamentary assemblies that can be a useful way of generating support and putting pressure on the intergovernmental structures. AI at times targets a range of other IGOs as opportunities arise, including the Commonwealth, the Francophonie or meetings of the G7, the Organization of Islamic Conference and the Non- Aligned Movement. There are thousands of other IGOs in the world. AI has a developed a program of work on only a handful, but will exploit other openings as this appears useful for particular country or thematic work. The importance of

intergovernmental organizations IGOs are government clubs. Most states wish to be part of these clubs and states can use many types of pressure to hold their peers accountable to the rules and spirit of the organizations. AI has devoted much effort to ensuring that discussion and action on human rights is high on the agenda of international organizations, and to ensuring that AI and other NGOs have a place at the table when they are discussed. Collectively governments remain one of the influential actors on the international human rights stage. The fact that these are organizations of government is both their strength and their weakness for AI. As organizations of governments they can express international will in a way and with an authority that few other bodies can. To some degree many governments care about the judgment of their peers in international organizations. Sometimes this is because of their national self-image. At other times it is because they are concerned that there will be economic

consequences if they are internationally acknowledged as human rights violators. The fact, therefore, that AI and others have succeeded at all in persuading governments to build mechanisms that actively encourage this judgment of peers is a remarkable achievement. However, the fact that IGOs primarily comprise governments means that discussions are highly politicized and subject to the interplay of conflicting economic, cultural, security and military interests. There can also be pressure for compromise and consensus on human rights that result in inaction or agreements based on the lowest, but weak, area of shared ground. Some IGOs have established human rights bodies that AI consistently relates to. However, all the functions and areas of responsibility of 106 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual IGOs are relevant to AI's work and the organization therefore approaches and lobbies any part of an IGO when it becomes necessary. For example, although the UN Security Council has no explicit human

rights role, it has been central to AI's campaigning strategies on countries such as Angola, Bosnia, Iraq, Liberia, Rwanda and other countries where the issues of security and war are mixed with human rights violations. AI is opening up new opportunities to influence government thinking on human rights in economic and trade organizations, such as the Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC), that have no human rights charters or bodies dealing with human rights. AI's strategy in relation to IGOs is partly aimed at ensuring that they acknowledge the human rights dimensions of all aspects of their functions, whether in peace-keeping operations, law enforcement standardsetting, development policy, economic policy, or refugees. IGOs at the regional level also provide AI with a huge range of options for action. One aim of AI's work is to get statements and resolutions from IGOs. It is often hard to judge the impact of these on patterns of human rights violations. One indicator of their

effectiveness is the reaction of governments to such criticism. Another is the lengths to which some governments go to avoid such criticism. UN and other mechanisms can make detailed recommendations for action to end violations based on their expertise. These recommendations carry considerable weight, particularly when added to the recommendations and campaigning of AI and other organizations. In some countries it has been possible to see a marked decrease in the incidence of particular violations once recommendations have been adopted. Other areas of the work of IGOs which AI seeks to influence include onsite missions, peace-keeping, human rights monitoring, behind-the-scenes representations, formal investigations, and contributing to the building of civil society. The importance of international human rights standards AI's original appeal in the Observer newspaper was founded on two articles (18 and 19) of the UDHR which guarantee freedom of conscience and expression. As the organization has

expanded its mandate, it has continued to show how the practises against which it campaigns violate internationally agreed human rights standards, or it has campaigned for new standards to fill gaps. This is important for the

following reasons: N It shows that the values that AI seeks to uphold are universal rather than the views of one organization or culture. This emphasizes AI's independence and impartiality. N International standards are the result of long negotiations between governments and as such represent the rules of behaviour that governments themselves have accepted. N International standards establish internationally acceptable practice, some of which over time take on the weight of international law. As most governments are reluctant to be defined as law-breakers, standards can in themselves act as a constraint on behaviour. N International standards set a broad framework of acceptable law and practice against which national law and practice can be measured. N Once agreements on standards have been reached it is possible to focus international discussion and action on mechanisms for upholding and monitoring compliance with them. N International standards emphasize that respect for human rights is not simply the internal concern

of any individual government. For these reasons and others, a key part of AI's strategy on campaigning has been to develop and strengthen © AI *Bacre Waly Ndiaye, UN Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions International Human Rights Standards and Organizations 107 international standards. It has, for example, campaigned consistently for the death penalty to be recognized in international law as a violation of human rights. Evidence that it is gradually succeeding can be found in the growing number of governments supporting the Second Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, aiming at abolition of the death penalty in peacetime. This helps erode the argument of some governments that the death penalty is a law and order question rather than a human rights one. However, standards in and of themselves are only one step along the way. Clearly, the main aim is to ensure that governments respect them. AI and other organizations therefore put considerable energy and resources into

developing effective international mechanisms for holding governments to account for standards they have promised to uphold. changes are needed and which governments need to be persuaded to act. The campaigning by AI members in Sections persuades governments to support AI's proposals. Knowledge of the UN machinery and drafting expertise has enabled AI to take advantage of opportunities for standard-setting. It has also allowed it to remain alert to threats to existing or proposed standards. AI continues to help sustain the work of established mechanisms through lobbying for resources and the provision of human rights information. At least one rapporteur has publicly stated that three quarters of the information he receives comes from AI.* A postcard that was used during an international appeal to the President of the UN General Assembly Strengthening the international human rights framework AI began working with the UN in 1964. AI has formal consultative status (Category II) with the UN (through the

Economic and Social Council -- ECOSOC), which was granted in 1969. This provides AI with formal international standing and access and the right to attend and speak at relevant UN meetings. AI and other NGOs have campaigned hard and to good effect to expand the practical interpretation of that access and participation in order to lobby for action on individual countries and improved standards. Every part of AI has been involved. Its research of country situations and monitoring of international organizations identifies the continuing violations and the weaknesses of, and opportunities for, action by international organizations. Consultations within AI and with NGOs and individual experts identify what Using the international human rights framework The UN and regional IGOs are integral to AI's strategies on many countries and their potential role and influence are always taken into consideration when preparing country strategies. In situations where the state has collapsed or lost effective control, IGOs

can be the most important actors affecting human rights. In many regions, regional IGOs have taken on an increasing role and importance, and AI is working to ensure that its lobbying and other campaigning on these IGOs is coordinated between the membership structures in these countries. AI primarily relates to the UN and regional IGOs through the IS offices in London, New York and Geneva. Strategies for reform of the international system are also coordinated from the IS. Because of the coordination role of the IS, Sections should not directly approach IGO secretariat headquarters, leading figures such as the High Commissioner for Human Rights, or bodies such as treaty bodies and thematic experts. There is a separate European Union (EU) office in Brussels responsible for AI's relations with the EU and reporting to Sections. 108 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual Although AI's relationship with IGOs is the responsibility of the IS, AI Sections play an important role in this area of work. In advance of meetings

such as sessions of the UN General Assembly and the Commission on Human Rights, Sections raise AI's concerns with their own country's representatives to these meetings. Individual AI members are often asked to attend meetings of intergovernmental bodies as representatives of the AI movement. Sections are often asked to lobby their government for action by an IGO, as part of AI’s urgent response to armed conflict or human rights crises. In general AI is most effective when it can generate public pressure on governments, from within their own countries, to take action on an issue and then complement this with detailed lobbying on specific proposals at the level of national governments and, where relevant, at international meetings and conferences. persuade your government to take a positive stand in an IGO, or if you want to get publicity for the human rights situation in particular countries being discussed, consider holding a briefing for journalists. UN and other IGO meetings are not very "media friendly",

so it is important to think carefully about the journalists you want to invite and how you can present the issues in a way that will be interesting and relevant to their audience. c Integrate IGO work into campaigning strategies When drawing up national AI campaigning strategies on different countries check the AI documents/campaigning circulars to see what reference is made to international standards, and to action by IGOs. Breaches of recognized international standards can be highlighted in approaches to home governments, as can failure of governments to cooperate with international mechanisms, for example, by denying access to UN special rapporteurs. You may want to make these major features of your campaign and publicity work. c Use UN human rights reports The country reports of the UN theme mechanisms and treaty bodies can be a source of useful background information when preparing campaigns or actions. It can sometimes be useful to refer journalists and others to these reports, as they can emphasize

the seriousness of the situation and help build greater public awareness of the mechanisms. The reports should be available from your nearest UN Information Office. c Provide information on standards and mechanisms to other interested NGOs Help build awareness among the wider NGO community of these standards, and the mechanisms and bodies established to implement and supervise them, so that they can decide how they can contribute to their campaigning for human rights. cTIPS c Find out to which international bodies your government belongs It is useful to know which international bodies your government belongs to, such as the UN Security Council, UN Commission on Human Rights, etc. In the UN General Assembly and other bodies all governments get one vote. Presidencies of these various international bodies rotate between countries and may provide new campaigning opportunities. c Sessions on the Commission on Human Rights for new government members If your government has recently become or is about to become a

member of the Commission for the first time, then your Section could offer to provide a training session for officials on how the Commission works. This could include AI's concerns and the status of NGOs at the Commission. Contact the IS for assistance. c Media briefings for journalists If you think public pressure may section two HOW WE ACHIEVE OUR GOALS N Campaigning Techniques N Preparing Campaign Materials N Media and Publicity Work N Outreach N Home Government Lobbying N Human Rights Education N Evaluation "Don’t stop writing... If you give us moral support, we will do the rest." Kim Dae Jung, former prisoner of conscience

CHAPTER 7 CAMPAIGNING TECHNIQUES

This chapter provides some suggestions on different campaigning techniques and actions that AI can use to protect and promote human rights. It is not a comprehensive list. Campaigning is and should be dynamic, with new techniques and variations of existing techniques constantly emerging. The methods described in this chapter, such as letter-writing

and speaking tours, should be integrated with the techniques dealt with in other chapters, such as media work, outreach and lobbying. Which ones are most appropriate will depend on your strategy. Pick the right tools for the job. The following sections outline some of the advantages and limitations of the different techniques as well as practical advice on how to use them. Contents Letter-writing and petitions/ 113 Speaking tours/ 121 Public events and protests/ 129 Contact with embassies/ 135 Celebrity support/ 143 1 Members of the Japanese Section participating in an organized letter writing session © AI CAMPAIGNING TECHNIQUES LETTER-WRITING AND PETITIONS Letter-writing is the campaigning technique most associated with AI and it remains an important means of trying to effect change in a wide variety of situations. As with other techniques, its impact depends on many factors, including how it is integrated with other campaigning methods. For some campaigns the quantity of letters sent is the

key. For others quality is the vital factor. This

section looks at:

N Letter-writing: strengths and weaknesses / 114 N Who receives AI letters? / 114 N Organizing a letter-writing action / 115 N ‘Quality’ letters / 116 High-impact letters / 116 Letters from sectors of the community / 117 Personal letters / 117 N Mass appeals / 118 The prepared letter / 118 Postcards / 118 N Petitions / 119 Design / 120 1 114 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual

Letter-writing: strengths Who receives AI letters? and weaknesses A large number of letters can be a good way of demonstrating the extent of awareness and concern in your society about human rights violations in another country. This level of concern may be important in influencing the policies of your own government or of the authorities in the target country. Individually written letters can demonstrate a depth of knowledge and personal concern, while letters from eminent people can have a particularly great impact. Letter-writing is such an old and established technique for AI that there are questions as to its continuing effectiveness, partly because some governments have become adept at countering letter-writing campaigns. Variety is one way to try and maintain effectiveness. If letter-writing to one official seems to be having no effect, perhaps it is time to approach someone else or to get others to write to the official. If governments begin to send standard responses to letters, it may be time to

make your letters more varied or to provide points for follow-up letters. The AI Handbook and the Guide for Letterwriters provide more detailed advice on the style and tone of letters. Advantages of letter-writing campaigns

The main advantages of letter-writing campaigns are that: N they are simple to organize; N they provide an easy way for people to take action and to feel involved; N campaign messages can be targeted at different audiences in the home country as well as internationally; N they take advantage of the way government bureaucracies often work; N they are flexible; N they are low cost in many societies; N they are personal; N they can boost the morale of victims and those working for them; N they educate those writing the letters; N they reinforce AI's image as a mass movement. The standard AI letter is addressed to a named government official in another country politely raising concerns and asking for specific action. The letters are usually outlined in materials included in the campaigning circulars provided by the International Secretariat (IS). However, letter-writing is such a flexible technique that it can be used in many different ways. Letters

can be directed to: N local officials, military commanders and others with direct responsibility for human rights violations as a way of directly applying pressure on them and exposing concern, and stimulating them to think and act on human rights; N the editor of a newspaper in the target or home country for publication as a good way of generating, encouraging and responding to media coverage and generating debate. This should be done in consultation with the AI structure in the target country, if there is one (see Chapter 9); N newspapers and other media as a way of campaigning to encourage them to increase their reporting on a particular country, foreign affairs or human rights generally; N supporters as an effective way of raising money (see Chapter 5); N embassies as a good way of getting Why letter-writing may not be appropriate or effective N Some targets are largely immune to international concern delivered through letters. For example, one government leader on hearing how many letters of

concern had arrived from Germany reportedly said, "When was the last time people in Germany voted for me?" N Mass mailings of letters may be counter-productive if there is a poor postal system in the target country. N Letters are of very limited use in situations of chaos or crisis where government systems are breaking down. N In some societies, low literacy levels or high postage costs make letterwriting inappropriate. You may want a highimpact letter to be public, as it can be a good way of generating more publicity for the campaign. Before deciding to go public, you should judge whether the publicity for the ‘open’ letter will be more effective than sending a letter Campaigning Techniques/Letter-writing and Petitions 115 the message to target governments; N government officials as a way of providing them with evidence of AI’s concern that they can then use to press for change internally; N those in a position to influence the human rights situation, such as government or military officials, who

may have concerns about a particular policy but feel alone and therefore unwilling to act (the letters provide them with moral support); N home governments as a way of raising and demonstrating concerns on policies or calling for specific actions (see Chapter 11); N human rights non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in target countries as a way of providing moral support and encouragement, which can help motivate them to continue their work; N prisoners and their relatives as a way of boosting morale and offering them an opportunity to communicate with the outside world; N particular sectors of society in a target country, such as doctors or lawyers, as a way of persuading them to take action in support of human rights (see Chapter 10). privately. "You continuously tried to help me during years of imprisonment." Hua Huang, a former prisoner of conscience who spent 21 years in jail in Taiwan, was sent letters of support by AI members Organizing a letterwriting action The following questions may help you

plan a letter-writing action: g How many letters would you like each group to send and over gQUESTIONS what period of time?

Be clear about what you want: this enables the group to plan and decide their work priorities. g Is it more important to send lots of letters or fewer letters that are more individual? If, for example, the most important thing is that letters are individual in character, then it is best not to provide a draft text for the letter. Provide a number of points that could be included in the letter (noting that letters need not include all points), or provide a number of interchangeable paragraphs that can be inserted in different parts of the letter. Suggest the type of personal information that could be included in the letter -- such as the writer's profession or trade, whether he or she has visited the country, or details about the writer's own community -- to demonstrate the personal nature of the concern. g Are letters likely to be more or less effective if people mention that they are AI members? In societies where AI is seen unfavourably, mentioning AI membership may be counter-productive.

Not mentioning AI membership can also help to convey the impression that the issue of concern is not part of a campaign but spontaneous. On the other hand, AI is an organization that is well respected and hard for governments to ignore, so mentioning AI can ensure that the content of the letter is taken seriously. Suggest to groups that if they are writing as members of AI they include information about AI in their own society to show the breadth of support it enjoys. 116 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual g Will letters from particular sectors of the community have more impact? If this is the case, you may need to provide groups with separate suggestions on what points these sectors should raise, the importance of using official titles or headed paper, and any special recipients that may be appropriate for these sectors. You may also need to provide them with advice and suggestions for outreach to these sectors (see Chapter 10). g How much do the letters to different officials need to vary?

If you want different letters to be sent to the minister of foreign affairs and the minister of prisons, then it may be best to provide separate advice or action sheets. g What materials are needed? Groups need enough information to understand what is wanted from them and to carry this out. This will usually mean providing them with the

following: M background material on the issue, country and the particular case and a summary of AI's strategy for addressing the issues; M points of concern that can be raised, possibly in the form of interchangeable paragraphs; M AI's recommendations; M addressees to write to, including titles and salutation; M advice on the number of letters which should be sent, which addresses are the most important, how long the letters should be, how many points to raise in each letter, etc. The background, guidance and points to be raised for a single letterwriting action should not be more than one or two pages long. The specific things you need to include are likely to depend on whether it is part of a campaign pack. If the group is provided with basic information on the target country and the strategy for addressing the issues, they will be in a good position to decide which issues to highlight and the best way to make their letters have an impact. © AI ‘Quality’ letters High-impact letters

A letter from a former president, a sports star, a famous singer, the head of a corporation, an academic, a judge or a general may have more influence on the addressee than a letter from an AI member or a member of the public. A joint letter from all or some of these may sometimes also be very effective. When deciding who is likely to have the most influence, you need to take into account the issue that is being tackled, the society in the target country and any special links between the target country and your own (see Chapter 2). It can be tempting to approach the same people for high-impact letters, or to ask people who have already made a public stand on human rights issues. But a letter can have a high impact partly because it comes from someone not usually associated with raising concerns about human rights -- illustrating in a symbolic way the extent of concern over a particular case or issue. Organizing a high-impact letter is likely to be different in every case. There are, however, a few general tips

that it is useful to bear in mind. If you include a draft letter, members are likely to simply copy this and you will lose the advantages of generating individual letters. Sadth O’Neill, Deputy Lord Major of Dublin, Ireland, signing a giant postcard at AI Open Day in Dublin in 1994, appealing for the release of three female prisoners of conscience in North Korea. Prepared letters A photocopied letter should be carefully proofread and

include: Nthe added name and address of the government official; N the added salutation (for example, "Your Excellency"); N the complete text of the letter with enough information for the sender to be confident of the facts; N a statement such as "Amnesty International, a worldwide human rights organization, considers (NAME) to be a prisoner of conscience"; N the added closing (for example, "Yours respectfully"); N space for a signature; N no date; N margins on the top and bottom large enough for the letter to be photocopied onto headed paper. Campaigning Techniques/Letter-writing and Petitions 117 have a greater impact than one from a group member? c Making these or similar approaches for the first time can be daunting. The materials provided by the Section to AI groups can make a big difference to whether or not the groups feel confident enough to make such approaches. c If the person's consent is given and it is considered beneficial, it can be useful to make public a high-impact

letter. ‘OPEN LETTERS’ c If it is an open letter, it can be copied to newspapers for printing on letters’ pages. c Making it public can help build AI's image in your society as a respected organization and thereby increase its influence. c It can help to attract support from others. c It can be the focus of other publicity, particularly if the signatory is willing and able to speak to the media about the issues and AI. c It may be possible to organize a "public signing" as the beginning of a more public event to which the media can be invited. c It can be copied to the embassy of the country in question and your own ministry of foreign affairs. cTIPS c Make it as easy as you can for the person you are approaching to say "yes". c Think carefully about what you want and what they will be comfortable in agreeing to. It may be that the most important factor is the signature, in which case the content, providing it addresses the main issues, can be a fairly bland statement of concern.

c Be very clear about what you would like the person to write, why you would like them to write the letter and why you think they might want to. In many countries you may have to go through the celebrities' agents, one of whose jobs is to filter such requests. You may well have to argue your case a number of times, so it is best to have the arguments ready. c Before making the approach think carefully about the objections the person may have, and how you could pre-empt or overcome them. For example, some people may think it is too political. Would it help to mention that other people whom they are likely to respect have already taken a stand? Would it help to mention the breadth of support AI enjoys in many societies? Getting those first few people to "take a stand for AI" is likely to be the most difficult part, but their support can then be used to gather further support. c If there is any administrative work involved, offer to do it. Some highprofile people are quite likely to ask you

to draft the letter for them to sign. In other cases, you should provide the key points and any relevant background information.This should be kept as short, clear and simple as possible. c High-impact letters can be organized centrally at the national level, although other parts of AI can also be encouraged to participate. Would a local group’s approach to a national celebrity work better than an approach from the Section? Would a letter from a mayor or a member of the local business community or council Letters from sectors of the community Letters from different sectors of your community may have a greater potential to influence situations than general letters from individuals. Lawyers, for example, are respected in many societies and therefore letters from them may be more influential. If concerns are being directed towards military figures it may be that they are more likely to listen to fellow military professionals (see Chapter 10). Personal letters An individually written letter, rather

than a standard appeal, is often more likely to get the attention of 118 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual government officials. It also makes it more difficult for governments to adopt a standard response. The more informed individual and targeted the letters are, the better. AI members are the most reliable source for such letters. and make a donation to cover the postage. This has the advantage of guaranteeing that the letters will be sent. Other groups distribute the letters more widely and freely hand them out at public meetings and workplaces, etc. This allows for a wider distribution, but it is unclear how many letters will be posted. Mass appeals The prepared letter One of the easiest ways of generating a large number of letters is to prepare them in advance. A simple standard text can be drafted, needing only the addition of a signature, return address, envelope and stamp (see margin, page 117). This sample can then be cheaply copied and distributed to AI members. New word-processing and printing

technology makes it possible to prepare a variety of letters for different government officials. These can then be copied and distributed in the same way as the standard text. It is likely that the first of these preprepared letters to land on a government official's desk will have the most impact as the official will quickly realize that the subsequent letters say the same thing and are part of a campaign. Thereafter, the impact of the letters lies primarily in their quantity -- the total number illustrating the level of concern. Distributing letters for signing and sending can also raise public awareness of the issues and offer a first step in getting people involved in defending human rights. Some AI groups set up public stalls - with prepared letters and envelopes addressed and stamped -- and ask people to sign the letter, add a return address © AI Postcard design Postcards The pre-printed campaign postcard can be another way of delivering AI’s evidence of human rights concerns and

of making sure AI's message stands out as it makes its way through postal systems. Postcards can be sent to government officials. They can also be sent to human rights organizations as a gesture of solidarity, to encourage them in their work and boost their morale. On one side postcards can have anything from a picture to a very direct campaign message. On the other, they can outline AI's concerns in relevant languages and be pre-addressed so that all they require is a signature and a stamp. This is also an easy way of giving individual members something practical to do in support of a campaign. Sets of postcards can be inserted in newsletters or included in other correspondence to members. Postcards can be distributed to AI groups for sale or distribution on public stalls. The front of AI campaign

postcards have included: N a quote from the UN Secretary-General linking human rights and peace, in regional languages, and a dove; N a photograph of a prisoner of conscience; N a photograph or drawing of items that belonged to the "disappeared"; N a photograph of AI membership action; N a poem; N the prisoner's name in different typefaces and languages. This campaign postcard, addressed to the President of South Korea, calls for the release of prisoners of conscience Kim Sun-Myung and Ahn Hak-sop. Some AI Sections have attracted new members and supporters by writing to people who have signed AI petitions. Mother and child sign a street petition organized by the Mexican Section © AI Campaigning Techniques/Letter-writing and Petitions 119 PRODUCING CAMPAIGN POSTCARDS jCHECKLIST N Check with your post office the relevant

regulations and restrictions concerning: M cost of postage; M front-cover colour or design; M thickness/weight of the card; M size of the card (length and width);

N Check with your newsletter editor: M the size of newsletter pages; M whether inserting cards will increase the postage costs; M whether there are plans to insert anything else in that issue of the newsletter; N Check with your designer and/or

printer: M the cost difference between colour and black and white printing on one and two sides; M how many cards can be printed on a sheet of card that will fit inside the newsletter and meet post office requirements for dimensions; N Check the colours to make sure there are no sensitivities about certain colours in the target country for political, nationalist or religious reasons;

N Check that the postcards include: M details of the case/issue; M what the concern is; M AI's recommendation for action; M the name and address of the official to whom the card will be sent; M the amount of postage necessary; M space for a signature. Petitions Petitions are frequently used in AI's campaigning. They have a tradition in public protest that goes back many centuries. Although in some countries petitions have been used to such an extent that they may have lost some of their former impact, they can still be an effective campaigning tool. Among

their benefits are: Mthey can provide a good focus for group and public activities; Mthey are a simple way of allowing people to express their support; Mthey can illustrate the level of public/community concern on an issue; Mthey are easy (and cheap) to organize. The following questions may help you decide how best to prepare your

petitions: gQUESTIONS g What do you want the petition to say? Make it as short and simple as possible. The more you write the more people will find that they disagree with the content. g Does it conform to any laws on how the language of petitions should be formulated in order to be legally valid? g Will you want to use the petition in media work? If so, pay extra attention to make it concise. 120 Amnesty International Campaigning Manual g To whom is it addressed? Do they have the authority to meet the demands you are making? Should the focus be your government or the target government or particular ministers? g How will you deliver it? Do you want local groups and individuals to send their completed petitions directly to the authorities or do you want to collect them at a central point so that you can count the total? Will you send off all the completed petitions? Will you ask for a personal meeting to hand in the completed forms? Would a handing in/sending off ceremony (involving a celebrity) be

worthwhile? g Do you want to publicize it? Do you want to organize "celebrity signings" to begin the campaign? Do you want to include petition forms in sympathetic publications? Do you want to announce the number of signatures aimed for or collected? You should be careful about stating a target you may not reach as this could make the action look a failure. Is the number you have collected impressive by other comparable standards? In some cases, variation of design is effective. Make petitions out of large pieces of cloth. Put the name of their community on it and display it at stalls with some paint so people can include hand or footprints next to their name and a message in support of the campaign's aim. These can provide good photo opportunities for campaign dossiers and can be handed in at embassies, etc. Make giant petitions. These too can be a good way for a local group to get publicity for the campaign. Write the petition neatly at the top of a large roll of paper. Either lay this along the

ground leading up to a campaign stall or suspend it from the top of a wall. Design N The layout should be clear. Make sure there is enough space and separate columns for names, addresses and signatures. N Include the date by which petitions need to be sent back. N Include the address to which completed petitions should be sent back, and a telephone number to ask for more blank copies. N Make sure you put AI's name and address on each sheet. N Use the campaign slogan as a way of getting the overall message across. N Include a column which people can mark if they want to receive further information on the campaign or on AI. An enormous street petition unravelled in the streets of Brussels © AI IS staff member Hilary Fisher (left) with Munga Gathogo ( centre) and Judy Muthoni Kamau ( right), two members of the Kenyan Release Political Prisoners Group who spoke at the IS in October 1997. © AI CAMPAIGNING TECHNIQUES SPEAKING TOURS A survivor of human rights violations telling their story in their own words is one of the most

powerful ways of getting AI's message across. So too can the testimony of a human rights defender working on the frontline, or of a UN human rights official mandated to work without sufficient resources. Speaking tours can offer such people a platform and in many other way open up good

campaigning opportunit